Claude Louis Berthollet Died On 21 July 1822

Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749.
Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds.
He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO3), is known as Berthollet's Salt.
Bertholett first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785.
Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium.
Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist Joseph Proust on the validity of the law of definite proportions. While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to the ratio of the reactants initially taken. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority. His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811. But it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor.
Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt, and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte.
In April, 1789 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.
He died in Arcueil, France in 1822.

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Ernest Rutherford Biography (Atomic Theory)

Chemist and physicist Ernest Rutherford was born August 30, 1871, in Spring Grove, New Zealand. A pioneer of nuclear physics and the first to split the atom, Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his theory of atomic structure. Dubbed the “Father of the Nuclear Age,” Rutherford died in Cambridge, England, on October 19, 1937 of a strangulated hernia.

In 1895, as the first research student at the University of Cambridge’s Cavendish Laboratory in London, Rutherford identified a simpler and more commercially viable means of detecting radio waves than had been previously established by German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Also while at Cavendish Laboratory, Rutherford was invited by Professor J.J. Thomson to collaborate on a study of X-rays. German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen had discovered X-rays just months before Rutherford arrived at Cavendish, and X-rays were a hot topic among research scientists. Together, Rutherford and Thomson studied the effects of X-rays on the conductivity of gases, resulting in a paper about dividing atoms and molecules into ions. While Thomson went on to examine what would
Rutherford was awarded with countless honors during his career, including several honorary degrees and fellowships from organizations such as the Institution of Electrical Engineers. In 1914 he was knighted. In 1931, he was elevated to the peerage, and granted the title Baron Rutherford of Nelson. He was also elected president of the Institute of Physics that same year.
On October 19, 1937, Baron Rutherford died in Cambridge, England at age 66 from the complications of a strangulated hernia. The scientist, who had been nicknamed “Crocodile” by his colleagues for always looking ahead, was buried at Westminster Abbey.
Years before he died, during World War I, Rutherford said he hoped scientists would not learn how to extract atomic energy until “man was living at peace with his neighbors.” The discovery of nuclear fission was, in fact, made just two years after his death, and eventually resulted in what Rutherford had feared—the use of nuclear power to build wartime weapons.
Many of Rutherford’s discoveries also became the basis of the European Organization for Nuclear Research’s construction of the Large Hadron Collider. The largest and highest-energy particle accelerator in the world and decades in the making,

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Literary Ambassadors of Iran at the United Nations Office at Vienna

Statues of four Iranian luminaries were unveiled during a ceremony at the United Nations Office at Vienna

Iran’s ambassador to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Ali-Asghar Soltanieh, and several other Iranian and foreign diplomats attended the unveiling ceremony for the statues of Avicenna, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Zakariya Razi (Rhazes), and Omar Khayyam.
“The idea was proposed by Iran’s representative at the UN Office at Vienna and was realized with the cooperation of Iran’s Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts Organization (CHTHO). The process of making the statues began two years ago,” Soltanieh told the Persian service of IRNA.
“The statues were completed last week and were transferred to the open space of the UN office. The date for the unveiling was also discussed with (members of) several organizations, including the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and finally the day June 9 was selected.”
The four statues are the symbols of Iranians’ adventurous spirit over the centuries and they are gifts from the Iranian nation to the world, Soltanieh added.
Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina, known as Abu Ali Sina and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna was born c. 980 near Bukhara, in contemporary Uzbekistan, and died in 1037 in Hamedan, Iran. He was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time. He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, physicist, poet, psychologist, scientist, soldier, statesman, and teacher.
The Muslim physician and writer Abu Bakr Muhammed ibn Zakariya Razi (854?-925?), also known as Rhazes, whose medical writings greatly influenced the Islamic world and Western Europe in the Middle Ages, was born and died in Rey. He wrote on almost every aspect of medicine.
Omar Khayyam (1048-1123) is chiefly known to English-speaking readers through the translation of a collection of his quatrains in “The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam” (1859), by the English writer Edward Fitzgerald.
Abu Rayhan Biruni (973-ca. 1048) was a Muslim astronomer, mathematician, geographer, and historian.

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History of Islamic Medicine 26

1. Arkan (Elements)
"Arkan " are simple bodies, which account for original constituents of human and non-human beings. They include fire , air , water and soil .
2- Mizaj (Physical Temperament)
Physical temperament is a product of combination of elements. Under a classification, physical temperaments fall into two categories.
A. Moderate
B. Immoderate
A. Moderate temperament in turn falls into two categories.
q Real moderate is a temperament in which the amount of qualities or quantities, which run counter to each other, is equal.
q Hypothetical moderate includes all those temperaments, which are not real.
Real moderate is a non-existent. What philosophers call Moderate is in fact hypothetical Moderate.
B. Immoderate temperaments fall into two categories as well:
q Simple temperaments
In such temperaments the quantity of two elements is equal but the third element outweighs the fourth. That definition adds up to 4 different simple temperaments. For instance if warmness and coldness are equal in quantity, but dryness is bigger than wetness , that temperament is called "dry ".
q Complex Temperament
Neither pair is equal in this temperament. Two elements are always over whelmed by the other two. Overall, under this category we have four temperaments: "warm and dry ", "warm and wet ”, "cold and dry" and "cold and wet".
3- Akhlat (Structural Components)
Structural components are the components into which food is first turned. There are four of them.
A. Bile , which is warm and dry .
B. Blood , which is warm and wet .
C. Phlegm which is cold and wet .
D. Black bile , which is cold and dry .
Below is a chart showing the features of structural components in comparison with elements.

Element	Structural Component	Feature
Fire	Bile	Warm and Dry
Air	Blood	Warm and Wet
Water	Phlegm	Cold  and Wet
Soil	Black bile	Cold  and Dry

 

Each one of the structural components in turn falls into two categories: natural and unnatural.
To have life, water and air are the most important elements respectively. The main components of human body are bile and blood . Human life depends on blood circulation. When circulation stops, life comes to an end. Structural components interact. When there is a balance in relationship among structural components, life becomes sustainable.
Structural components are said to be made up of food. That means food, just like humans, has physical temperaments. Some foods are warm and dry so they make up bile . In fact they have anti-phlegmatic effects. Some others are warm and wet . They make blood and have anti-black bile effects. Another group is cold and wet. That is it helps create phlegm and has anti-bile effect. The last group is cold and dry helps the body make black bile . They have anti-blood effects. Natural drugs such as herbal medicines have physical temperaments, too. These temperaments are used as a basis for prescription of a certain herbal medicine for an illness.
4- Adha (Fully - Grown Organs)
Fully-grown organs are made up of akhlat (structural components). Each one of them has its special features. For instance heart is the warmest organ, while bones are the coldest. Organs fall into two different categories: "Raeesah" and "Qeir Raeesah". The latter in turn falls into two categories "Khadem-ul-Raeesah" and "Qeir Khadem-ul-Raeesah". "Qeir Khadem-ul-Raeesah" organs are either "Maroosah" or "Qeir Maroosah". "Raeesah" organs are instrumental in sustainability of life. Among them are heart, brain, liver and testicles.
Examples of "Khadem-ul-Raeesah" organs are nerves, arteries, and urea, which help brain, heart and liver carry out their functions. Maroosah organs are those which receive the power from Raeesah organs. Among them are kidneys, stomach, spleen, and lungs. Qeir Maroosah organs are those which receive no power from Raeesah organs. Among them are bones and joints.
5- Arwah (Vital forces of life)
Arwah is the plural form of "Ruh ". They are made up of steams of structural components and fall into three different categories.
A. Natural Ruh (Tabiee) , which is pumped into veins from liver. It visits all parts of the body and facilitates nutrition and growth.
B. Animal Ruh (Heywani), which is pumped into arteries from heart and circulate.
C. Spirit Ruh (Nafsani) , which is sent by brain to different parts of the body through nerves. It is the origin of sense and motion.
6- Quwa (Bodily power)
Quwa is the plural form of "Quwat" which is the power granted to human or animal body to do what they want to. Quwa fall into two different categories.
A. The Quwa (powers) which are essential in life.
B. The Quwa (powers) which are essential in reproduction.
The first group in turn falls into three categories.
q Natural powers which are based in liver and are instrumental in nutrition and growth.
q Animal power, which are based in heart and play a role in living functions. While the heart pumping blood , air is taken in and smoke-like steam is forced out of heart and lungs.
q Spiritual powers which are based in brain and control senses and motions. Spiritual powers fall into different categories in turn:
a) Perceptive powers
Perceptive powers in turn fall into external and internal categories. External powers include vision, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. Internal powers include common sense, imagination, thinking, illusion and memory.
-Common sense is a power, which senses all tangible things.
-Imagination is a power, which retains the effects of what has crossed the line from tangible to common sense.
-Thinking is a power, which makes changes in tangible things like thinking of a headless or two-headed man. The difference between dreaming and thinking is that the first one keeps what it receives from the common sense but the latter makes changes to what dream keeps in it.
-Vahm (Conceit)
-Hafezeh (preserving power)
b) Motive power
Motive power falls into two categories:
-"Ba_etheh" (incentive power), which encourages the person to make a motion which is useful or seems so; or it makes the person stop a motion, which is harmful or seems so.
-"Fa_eleh" (active power) is the power, which makes muscles do what "Ba_etheh" instruct them to.
7. Afaal (functions)
Afaal is the plural form of "Fel" which means task and activity. All the previous six entries are there to carry out certain tasks. Some tasks are accomplished by one single power like digestion and excretion. Some tasks require cooperation of a few powers. Among them are "turning food to structural components" and "turning structural components to "Ruh ", etc.
What was already mentioned reveals that the ITM has its roots in medicine of ancient Iran, folk medicine and the medicine practiced in other countries. It should be mentioned however that Islamic teachings have played a significant role in shaping up the ITM.

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History of Islamic Medicine 25

Ah, spicy food. Is there anything better than a spicy meal, especially when it's homemade? There is no one around to tell you that it's too hot, no overly-cautious cook afraid to add too much piquant, and no one to watch as you sweat bullets and gulp down your molten concoction just the way you like it.
But can spicy food damage our sense of taste? When do we know we've had too much of it? And do quesosakatenango chili peppers really cause hallucinations that send you on a quest to find your soul-mate (for all The Simpsons fans)?
One can experience stomach problems and other conditions if a meal is a bit too zesty. Furthermore, constantly eating hot food can have permanent negative effects on the body. Here's what you need to know about the negative impact spicy food can have.
pepper this, pepper that
A little bit of pepper here and there won't hurt you; most of us add it to our meals not for the sake of making food hotter, but for the aroma. Having said that, let us establish what I mean by spicy food. Here is a small sample list of foods and ingredients that can be too spicy for our own good.
Garlic
Granted, garlic is amazing. Eating one or two cloves of garlic might turn a few heads, but it won't make you see talking coyotes. It is one of the healthiest foods out there, but some people just can't get enough of this good thing. Consuming more than three cloves in one sitting can make one feel a little something brewing in the belly.
Hot chili (jalapeno) peppers
The epitome of hot food, chili peppers have long been used in spicy meals. Indian, Creole and Cajun cuisine rely heavily on jalapenos for chili sauce. Eat one of those little things raw (notice how the smaller they are, the hotter they get) and you'll feel the burn all the way to your ears, literally.
The simple fact that hot peppers are so potent makes me wonder if humans were ever meant to eat them raw. They make a great ingredient, but in my opinion, they shouldn't be eaten on a regular basis.
Horseradish
A popular ingredient in Asian cuisine, this little beige or green root (depending in which part of the world you are in) can pack a wallop and is often overused. Japanese horseradish, or wasabi, is green and used as dip for sushi.
The funny thing about grated horseradish is that it always seems to catch people off-guard. We all know it burns and know it will unclog sinuses for what seems like a million years, but people still always take that extra ounce that puts them over the edge. Some cultures, like the Japanese, enjoy its punch, but horseradish is another spicy culprit to watch out for.
Ginger
Despite its pleasant name, ginger is often misused. Most recipes do not use it enough to make the ingredient harmful, but dried sweet ginger, especially when it's eaten like candy, falls in the category of harmful spicy foods.
negative effects
Now that you know which foods can cause you harm, here is why they shouldn't be overused.
Geographic tongue
Eating potent things can cause a condition known as geographic tongue (genign migratory glossitis). It is believed that geographic tongue is caused by an allergic reaction to certain comestibles. Whether or not it's caused by allergies isn't clear, but spicy food is usually the culprit.
The condition appears quite rapidly and produces irritation by forming strange patterns on the tongue. After an onset, one can have a weakened sense of taste for up to one month. It disappears with time and isn't dangerous, but it can be quite irritating.
Gastritis
An overabundance of spicy food can cause Gastritis. Gastritis is an inflammation in the stomach lining. It is usually triggered by infections, but spicy foods like chili peppers are also believed to reduce the stomach's protective barrier.
Chronic gastritis can produce ulcers by allowing the stomach's own acids to eat away at the lining. Ulcers can heal with time, just like any other lesion, but one must eat milder meals.
Acid reflux
In some people, spicy food can trigger acid reflux disease, which isn't bad per se, but it can be bothersome. Restaurant cuisine often seems to elicit this condition -- all that burping men experience after a nice Italian meal at their favorite bistro isn't a result of bad manners, it's the body not being able to handle all that strange, spicy cuisine.
Chronic acid reflux disease can also lead to esophageal cancer, but only in rare cases. Cutting down on peppery cooking is a good first step to reducing this risk. Acid reflux, especially at night, can also erode teeth.
Bad breath
Garlic and onions are among the worst-smelling things a guy can eat, and they also happen to cause bad breath. Granted, bad breath isn't much of a nuisance, but it can sometimes spell disaster, especially on a nice first date. So avoid spicy cuisine on those nights.
Insomnia
Here's one most men probably didn't know: spicy food is bad for sleep. The cause is quite simple. The body needs to slow down before it can snooze and spicy food raises body temperature (that's why we sweat after a consuming fiery food). If one happens to consume something zesty before going to bed, it can disrupt slumber. The first cycle of sleep is particularly sensitive to hot food.
Damage to taste buds
Finally, constantly eating hot food can permanently reduce the sensation of taste. I often hear people assure others that they will get used to the burning of chili peppers. It's true, people do feel less scorching after years of spicy abuse, but not because the body got "used" to the sensation in question.
Over time, taste buds wear out, making this reduced sensation nothing more than wear and tear of chronic abuse. It's no different from people getting "used" to loud music in clubs -- in both cases the body suffers permanent deterioration.
enjoy heat in moderation
I myself love spicy food, but I also realize that the body feels "pain" for a reason. When the body sends us signals that something is not right, cutting down may be in order. Consuming scorching peppers isn't a sign of manliness; with all the reasons listed above, it's a sign of ignorance, so consume fewer super-spicy meals.

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Quran And Science Episode 2 (The Six Days of Creation)

Indeed your Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth in Six Days, and then He Istawa (rose over) the Throne (really in a manner that suits His Majesty). He brings the night as a cover over the day, seeking it rapidly, and (He created) the sun, the moon, the stars subjected to His Command. Surely, His is the Creation and Commandment. Blessed be Allah, the Lord of the 'Alamin (mankind, jinns and all that exists)!

The descriptions of creation in the Qur'an are not intended as dry historical accounts, but rather to engage the reader in contemplating the lessons to be learned from it. The act of creation, therefore, is frequently spoken of as a way of drawing the reader into thinking about the order in all things, and the All-Knowing Creator Who is behind it all. For example:
"Verily in the heavens and the earth are signs for those who believe. And in the creation of yourselves, and the fact that animals are scattered (through the earth), are signs for those of assured faith. And in the alternation of night and day, and that fact that Allah sends down sustenance from the sky, and revives therewith the earth after its death, and in the change of the winds, are signs for those who are wise" (45:3-5).
Big Bang?
When describing the creation of the "heavens and the earth," the Qur'an does not discount the theory of a "Big Bang" explosion at the start of it all. In fact, the Qur'an says that "the heavens and the earth were joined together as one unit, before We clove them asunder" (21:30). Following this big explosion, Allah "turned to the sky, and it had been (as) smoke. He said to it and to the earth: 'Come together, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We come (together) in willing obedience'" (41:11). Thus the elements and what was to become the planets and stars began to cool, come together, and form into shape, following the natural laws that Allah established in the universe.
The Qur'an further states that Allah created the sun, the moon, and the planets, each with their own individual courses or orbits. "It is He Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon; all (the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course" (21:33).

Expansion of Universe

The Qur'an also does not rule out the idea that the universe is continuing to expand. "The heavens, We have built them with power. And verily, We are expanding it" (51:47). There has been some historical debate among Muslim scholars about the precise meaning of this verse, since knowledge of the universe's expansion was only recently discovered.
Six Days?
The Qur'an states that "Allah created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them, in six days" (7:54). While on the surface this might seem similar to the account related in the Bible, there are some important distinctions.
The verses that mention "six days" use the Arabic word "youm" (day). This word appears several other times in the Qur'an, each denoting a different measurement of time. In one case, the measure of a day is equated with 50,000 years (70:4), whereas another verse states that "a day in the sight of your Lord is like 1,000 years of your reckoning" (22:47). The word "youm" is thus understood, within the Qur'an, to be a long period of time -- an era or eon. Therefore, Muslims interpret the description of a "six day" creation as six distinct periods or eons. The length of these periods is not precisely defined, nor are the specific developments that took place during each period.
After completing the Creation, the Qur'an describes that Allah "settled Himself upon the Throne" (57:4) to oversee His work. A distinct point is made to counter the Biblical idea of a day of rest: "We created the heavens and the earth adn all that is between them in six days, nor did any sense of weariness touch Us" (50:38).
Allah is never "done" with His work, because the process of creation is ongoing. Each new child who is born, every seed that sprouts into a sapling, every new species that appears on earth, is part of the ongoing process of Allah's creation. "He it is Who created the heavens and the earth in six days, then established Himself on the Throne. He knows what enters within the heart of the earth, and what comes forth out of it, what comes down from heaven, and what mounts up to it. And He is with you wherever you may be. And Allah sees well all that you do" (57:4).

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History of Islamic Medicine 24

Many are shocked to find out that Islam upholds traditional conservative family values. The children are taught to be respectful to Allah (God), to their parents and to elders. When a baby is born the first thing the parents will do is to make the call to prayer in it's ear: God is the Greatest, God is the Greatest, There is No God but Allah There is No God but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of God, Muhammad is the Messenger of God, Come to Prayer Come to Prayer, Come to Salvation Come to Salvation, God is the Greatest, God is the Greatest. What a wonderful thing that the very first words an infant hears is that there is a God-Allah, a Messenger-Muhammad, Prayer and a way to Salvation. This is imprinted on the mind of the infant rather then something that is foolishly and rashly spoken out.

The Creation of a Child According to the Qur’an
In several verses of the Noble Qur’an, Allāh (swt) has mentioned the creation and stages of transformation of the child. It is by observing this miracle that one inevitably desires to thank and revere Him, the best of Creators.
In Surat al-Mu’minūn, verses 12-14, He states:
} وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا الإِِنْسَانَ مِنْ سُلاَلَةٍ مِّــنْ طِــينٍ ثُمَّ جَعَلْنَاهُ نُطْفَةً فِي قَرَارٍ مَّكِينٍ ثُمَّ خَلَقْنَا النُّطْفَةَ عَلَقَةً فَخَلَقْنَا الْعَلَقَةَ مُضْغَةً فَخَلَقْنَا الْمُضْغَةَ عِظَامًا فَكَسَوْنَا الْعِظَامَ لَحْماً ثُمَّ أَنشَأْنَاهُ خَلْقًا آخَرَ فَتَبَارَكَ اللٌّهُ أَحْسَنُ الْخَالِقِينَ {
“Certainly We created the human being from an extract of clay. Then We made him a drop of (seminal) fluid (lodged) in a secure abode. Then We created the drop of fluid as a clinging mass. Then We created the clinging mass as a fleshy tissue. Then We created the fleshy tissue as bones. Them We clothed the bones with flesh. Then We produced him as (yet) another creature. So blessed is Allāh (swt), the best of creators!”
In the verses above, Allāh (swt) mentions 7 stages of creation:
Stage 1: The human being initially starts off as clay; in other words, the inorganic constituents of the earth are absorbed into living matter by way of food.
Stage 2: Living matter reproduces itself by means of sperm; thus the human is then made into a seed (the seminal fluid), and placed in a firm resting place (the ovum of a mother).
Stage 3: The first change in the fertilised ovum is the conversion into a sort of clot of thickly congealed blood, or clinging mass.
Stage 4: The zygote cells grow by segmentation; then the mass gradually assumes shape in its growth as a foetus (a lump of fleshy tissue).
Stage 5: From this develops bones.
Stage 6: Flesh now grows on the bones, as do organs and a nervous system.
Stage 7: So far the development of an infant human is like that of an animal. However, a major step is now taken and the foetus becomes a complete human. This is the breathing of Allāh (swt)’s spirit into him. (This may not be at a specific time; rather it may be parallel to that of physical growth.)
On the subject of the creation of the foetus, it is narrated from the Prophet (s): “The seed in the womb of the mother (takes) 40 days to become a clot, then after 40 days it becomes a lump of flesh (foetus); when the child is 4 months old, by the command of Allāh (swt), 2 Angels give the foetus a spirit (rūh) and specify the sustenance (Rizq), period of living, deeds (A‘māl), prosperity and adversity of the child.”
It is perhaps for this reason that it has been suggested that especially after the 40th day of intercourse, one should be extra careful when preparing food. The food must be ritually clean and halāl as this will have an impact on the child.
Imām as-Sādiq (as) also described the process of creation as follows: “After the completion of the materials of the body, Allāh (swt) sends two Angels who have the duty of the creation of the child, and by the permission of Allāh (swt), they create the ears and eyes and all the inner and outer organs (limbs) of the body.”
In Imām Husain’s (as) Du’a of ‘Arafāt, he refers to the process of creation and attempts to count the blessings bestowed by Allāh (swt) in the following manner:
“You originated me by Your blessing before I was a thing remembered.
You created me from dust,
then gave me a place in the loins (of my fathers),
secure from the uncertainty of Fate and the vagaries of
the ages and the years.
I remained a traveller from loin to womb in a time
immemorial of past days
and bygone centuries.

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History of Islamic Medicine 23

Video is at the end of this Article

There are almost 78 organs in a human body which vary according to their sizes, functions or actions. An organ is a collection of millions of cells which group together to perform single function in a human body. The cells in these body organs are highly specialized and formed for all the necessary actions for some specific time. Out of these 78 organs of a male or female body, skin is the largest or biggest organ with respect to its size and weight. The mojor or prerequisite human organ is the brain which handles all the functions and actions of a human body. Other top ten or 10 human body organs are given in the following list with names and functions.
Skin is the largest or biggest human body organ. The average weight of skin in human body is about 10,886 grams which varies according to the size and weight of human being. Human skin is made up of different ectodermal tissues and it protects all the inner body organs like liver, glands, stomach, heart etc. Other functions are heat regulation, interaction with atmosphere, protection from diseases, absorption and sensation.
 
Liver is the second largest organ of male or female human body. Its average weight in a normal human body is 1,560 gms. The liver recieves blood full of digested food from the gut. It stores some foods and delivers the rest to the other cells through blood. The other function of liver is to change the left material into harmless waste called urine.

Brain is the third largest and major organ of human body. Its average weight in a normal human body is 1,263 gms. The brain controls the actions of all the body parts. There are about 100 billion cells in human brain which make about 100 trillion nerve connections with nerve cells for messaging. Medulla oblongata, Midbrain, Hind brain, Cerebellum, Spinal cord and Venticle are some of the major parts of a human brain.

Lungs is the fourth biggest organ of human beings body. The average total weight of the right and left lung in a normal human body is about 1,090 gms. The major function of lungs is to inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide out of the red blood cells. The lungs can hold a total of upto 5 litres of air. The adult lungs have an internal area of over 90 meters, that is about half the area of a tennis court.

Heart is the fifth largest human body organ which is prerequisite for a living human being. The major function of the heart is to pump the blood to every part of the body to deliver the energy to every body cell. In males the average weight of heart is 315 gm while in females this weight is about 265 gms. Ventricles, atrium and aorta are some of the main parts of a human heart.
Kidneys is the sixth largest organ in every human body. There are two kidneys in every human being and the average weight of both the kidneys is about 290 grams. The major function of a kidney is to separate the waste amterial by filtering the blood. Both these kidneys filter our blood 50 times a day. If one kidney stops working the other will enlarge and do the work of two.

 
Spleen is 170 grams heavy and it is the seventh largest or heaviest organ of the human body. It forms the red blood cells pulp and white blood cells pulp. Therefore it is helpful in making the blood and increasing the immunity of the human being.

 
 Pancreas is the eighth largest human organ with an average weight of 98 grams in human body. It is one of the most important gland which produces several hormones including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. The pancreas is a dual-function gland, having features of both endocrine and exocrine glands.

 
Thyroid is the ninth biggest one in human organs system. The average weight of thyroid gland in human body is 35 grams. It is the largest gland in the human body. The function of this gland is to produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones.


 
Prostate is the tenth largest human organ gland with a weight of 20 grams.

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History of Islamic Medicine 22

signs of pregnancy

* missing your period or having a very light short period
* tender and swollen breasts
* having to go to the bathroom a lot
* changes in mood and appetite
* "morning sickness" -- nausea or vomiting for no reason, especially when you first wake up
* wet spots (discharge) in your underwear
Signs of pregnancy are different for each woman. You may have none of these signs or all of them. Also, many women get these symptoms when they're about to get their period.
If you miss your period and think you're pregnant, get a test.
Don't wait too long! The sooner you know, the more choices you have: either to get an abortion in the first 3 months (the safest kind), or to get early health care if you decide to go through with the pregnancy.

Heartburn: Hormone changes during pregnancy, combined with your growing belly, can make it easier for stomach acid to wash up into the throat. Here are some ways to put out the fire:
* Eat small, frequent meals (this will also help with morning sickness).
* Stay away from greasy or fried food, coffee, cola, and smoking (which you should avoid during pregnancy anyway).
* Eat slowly and chew your food well.
* Don't lie down for at least half an hour after meals.
* Prop up your head and shoulders while you're asleep.
* Try calcium carbonate, an antacid that's also used as a calcium supplement. Don't take more than the dose recommended on the package, and don't treat yourself with any other over-the-counter medications (including other antacids) before checking with your doctor or pharmacist.
Morning sickness: As any pregnant woman knows, "morning sickness" should really be called "all-day sickness." It usually gets better after the first trimester, but an unlucky few suffer right up until they deliver their baby. Here are a few ways to help that queasy stomach:
* Have small, frequent meals. Don't let yourself get too hungry.
* Have small amounts of fluids several times a day. But don't drink fluids during or just before or after a meal.
* Before you get out of bed in the morning, eat a small nutritious snack like crackers or a granola bar (keep it by your bed), then rest in bed for 15 minutes.
* If certain scents or foods turn your stomach, steer clear! The most common offenders are fried, spicy, or fatty foods.
* If you're having trouble finding foods you can keep down, try bread, noodles, watermelon, crackers, cereal, mashed potatoes, clear soup, apple slices, pretzels, or pickles.
* Try having your food cold instead of hot to take away some of the smell.
* Try smelling lemons or ginger to calm your stomach.
* Have a few salty potato chips to ease nausea before your meal.
* Take your prenatal vitamin with food so it doesn't upset your stomach.
* Get plenty of rest and fresh air.
* Try acupressure wrist bands (available at your local pharmacy).
* Ask your doctor about taking Diclectin® (doxylamine/pyridoxine), a prescription antinausea medication for pregnant women.
Fatigue: Considering the enormous amount of work your body is doing right now, it's not unusual to feel completely exhausted. The best solution: rest! Give yourself permission to get the sleep you need, even if this means adjusting your schedule and asking for help with household chores.
Frequent urination: In the first trimester, those frequent bathroom trips are due to the pregnancy hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which causes increased urination. In the second trimester, you usually get a bit of a break from bathroom time. But in the third trimester, bathroom breaks are back with a vengeance as the growing uterus puts pressure on the bladder. What can you do?
* avoid caffeine
* avoid fluids in the early evening and before bedtime – drink more fluids during the rest of the day to make up for this
* go to the bathroom when you feel the urge
* when you urinate, lean forward to help the bladder empty more
Constipation: During pregnancy, food moves more slowly through the body to give you a better chance to absorb nutrients. Iron supplements can also make you constipated. What can you do to stay regular?
* eat high-fibre foods like fruit, vegetables, beans, and whole grains
* get plenty of fluids
* stay active
* go to the bathroom when you feel the urge – don't wait
Sore back: A growing uterus, a shifting center of gravity, and loosening ligaments add up to back pain for many pregnant women, especially in the third trimester. Here are a few ways to ease back pain:
* Choose your shoes wisely. Opt for a low heel with good arch support.
* Lift with your legs, not your back. And don't lift heavy objects – ask for help.
* If you have to stand for a long time, put one foot up on a step stool or box.
* When picking things up, squat down and keep your back straight instead of bending from the waist.
* When getting up, roll onto your side first, then use your hands to push up.
* Apply a heating pad or ask for a back rub.
* Choose chairs with good lumbar support or put a little pillow behind the small of your back when sitting.
* Stay active – try water exercises and walking.
Stretch marks and itchy belly: There's no sure-fire way to prevent or get rid of stretch marks. But you can reduce your risk by trying to gain no more than a healthy amount of weight: 25 to 35 pounds (11 kg to 16 kg) for most women. Use lotion to keep your skin well hydrated and to avoid "itchy belly." After the baby is born, the stretch marks will likely fade.
Gestational diabetes: This is a type of diabetes that starts during pregnancy and usually disappears after the birth. The first sign is usually a high result on a routine pregnancy blood sugar test, usually done between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy. Your doctor will do more detailed blood sugar tests to confirm it. Being diagnosed with gestational diabetes usually means a few changes:
* You'll need more frequent medical tests, such as blood sugar testing, ultrasounds, urine testing for protein, and blood pressure measurements.
* You'll be asked to make some healthy diet changes and exercise more frequently.
* You may need to use insulin injections if your blood sugar can't be controlled by exercise and eating changes alone.
* Because women who had gestational diabetes during pregnancy are at a higher risk of diabetes later in life, your doctor will check your blood sugar about 6 weeks after the birth, and then yearly.
Gestational diabetes increases the risk of having a large baby, a C-section, or very low blood sugar levels in the baby after birth. But it can be controlled to help keep both you and your baby healthy.
High blood pressure (pregnancy-induced hypertension): Some women develop high blood pressure during their pregnancies. Usually this happens in the last trimester (the last 3 months), and usually goes away after the birth. It can increase the risk of certain complications for both mother and baby. It may limit the blood flow to the placenta, which means the baby gets less oxygen and nutrients. It can also cause serious problems for the mother, such as seizures or decreased blood flow to the vital organs. Let your doctor know if you have a severe headache, vision changes, abdominal pain, decreased amounts of urine, or severe swelling of your hands or feet. If you develop high blood pressure during your pregnancy, your doctor will test your blood pressure, weight, and urine frequently. You may need medication, bed rest, and healthy eating to get your blood pressure down. If you are close to the end of your pregnancy and your blood pressure is quite high, you may need to deliver your baby before your due date. Delivering the baby is the only way to cure high blood pressure of pregnancy.
This is not a complete list of all pregnancy-related problems. Talk to your doctor for advice of managing these and other pregnancy issues not listed here.

Breastfeeding problems and solutions
breastfeeding It's only natural for you and your baby take time to get used to breastfeeding. Your body is doing its best to supply your new baby with milk, which may mean your breasts become engorged, producing too much milk and making your breasts leak. In the early days, if your baby has trouble latching on, your nipples may become sore or even start to crack. It's worth investing a bit of time to get breastfeeding going. If your baby is feeding easily it will mean you are less likely to develop infections such as mastitis and thrush. Whatever your worries, we have the right advice for you.

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History of Islamic Medicine 21

There are lots of sociological factors that could effect human behaviour. Family life, school environment (violent, drug-filled, etc), violence on tv or in the home, weak or strong social ties (ex. lack of strong friendships), socioeconomic status, neighbourhood (clashing or cohesiveness of cultural norms), education level obtained, poor social influences (ex. gang behaviour). societal norms and influences (ex. farming community vs inner-city), religious influences...etc, etc.
There are HUGE amounts of sociological factors that could influence the way any particular person may act. But I'm not solely a 'nurture' individual. I believe in nature AND nurture. Predisposition and environment.
Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.
The behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. In sociology, behavior in general is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people, and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior in this general sense should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is a more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of behavior is evaluated relative to social norms and regulated by various means of social control.
The behavior of people is studied by the academic disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social work, sociology, economics, and anthropology.
Factors affecting human behavior and actions
* Genetics (see also evolutionary psychology) – affects and governs the individual's tendencies toward certain directions.
* Attitude – the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.
* Social norms – the influence of social pressure that is perceived by the individual (normative beliefs) to perform or not perform a certain behavior.
* Perceived behavioral control – the individual's belief concerning how easy or difficult performing the behavior will be.
* Core faith – The person's set of beliefs, like religion, philosophy, etc. Provided, sometimes subconsciously, by his or her family, peers, social media, and the society where he or she lives.
* Survivor instinct - engaging in certain behaviors may abate fear and become habitual, as in addiction.

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History of Islamic Medicine 20

The Human Nervous System
- Human Neurology
The nervous system is essentially a biological information highway, and is responsible for controlling all the biological processes and movement in the body, and can also receive information and interpret it via electrical signals which are used in this nervous system
It consists of the Central Nervous System (CNS), essentially the processing area and the Peripheral Nervous System which detects and sends electrical impulses that are used in the nervous system
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
The Central Nervous System is effectively the centre of the nervous system, the part of it that processes the information received from the peripheral nervous system. The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheral nervous system and also sends out signals to it, either consciously or unconsciously. This information highway called the nervous system consists of many nerve cells, also known as neurones, as seen below.
The Nerve Cell
Diagram of a Neurone - With the Axon and Dendrites projecting from the Cell Body
Each neurone consists of a nucleus situated in the cell body, where outgrowths called processes originate from. The main one of these processes is the axon, which is responsible for carrying outgoing messages from the cell. This axon can originate from the CNS and extend all the way to the body's extremities, effectively providing a highway for messages to go to and from the CNS to these body extremities.
Dendrites are smaller secondary processes that grow from the cell body and axon. On the end of these dendrites lie the axon terminals, which 'plug' into a cell where the electrical signal from a nerve cell to the target cell can be made. This 'plug' (the axon terminal) connects into a receptor on the target cell and can transmit information between cells
The Way Nerve Cells Communicate
The "All-Or-None-Law" applies to nerve cell communication as they use an on / off signal (like an digital signal) so that the message can remain clear and effective from its travel from the CNS to the target cell or vice versa. This is a factor because just like electricity signals, the signal fades out and must be boosted along its journey. But if the message is either 1 or 0 (i.e.) on or off the messages are absolute.
Classification of Neurones
Interneurones - Neurones lying entirely within the CNS
Afferent Neurones - Also known as sensory neurones, these are specialised to send impulses towards the CNS away from the peripheral system
Efferent Neurones - These nerve cells carry signals from the CNS to the cells in the peripheral system

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History of Islamic Medicine 19

People drink a lots of coffee, tea, and sodas containing caffeine, that prompts the human's body to lose water. More troubling is so happening such a when we are dehydrated, we do not know what to drink.

The answer is simple: drink water!
Water is pure liquid refreshment and accounts for a large amount of what makes everyone of us "human." The average 150 lb. adult organism contains 40 to 50 quarts of water. Almost 2/3rds of our body weight is "water weight":
* Bones is 22% water
* Blood is 83% water
* Brain is 74% water
* Muscles are 75% water
The Fountain of Beauty, Youth, Health, and Everything Else that's Good
Woman with a glass of waterThe source of life - Water - is necessary for your human's body to digest and absorb vitamins and nutrients. It as well detoxifies the liver and kidneys, and carries away garbage from the body. And when it comes to digestion . . . it is just not occur without water. Fibre only cannot aid ideal digestive function by itself. In fact, without water as its partner, fibre goes bad, results in constipation and terrible discomfort.
If you are dehydrated, your blood is literally thicker, and your organism has to push much harder to cause it to circulate. As a result, the brain becomes much less active, it is hard to concentrate, your body feels fatigued, and you simply "poop out."
Water - The Miracle Worker
Simple water -- when it is pure and without any contaminants -- is really a "wonder drug." Free of chemicals, additives, or anything and everything unnatural, a solid dose of 8 glasses of water a day (ideally half of a person's weight in ounces of water) will:
* Allow for proper Digestion
* Help to keep you more Alkaline
* Help You Lose Weight
* Improve Your Energy
* Increase Your Mental and Physical Performance
* Keep Skin Healthy, Beautiful and Glowing
* Remove Toxins & Waste Products from your body
* Reduce Headaches and Dizziness
Drinking Water is Heart-Healthy
The findings of a six-year clinical study of a large group of 20,000 healthy people men and women aged 38-100 in the May 1, 2002 American Journal of Epidemiology discover that women who drank five glasses of water a day or more got 41% relatively lower expectation to die of a heart attack during the study time than persons who drank two glasses or less. The protective influence of water was much greater in men.
Drinking Water and Weight Loss
Small girl drinking water Water is a well known and natural appetite suppressant, so developing a great water drinking habit can be a consistent aid in achieving and maintaining a decent weight. Doctor F. Batmanghelidj MD, author of "Your Body's Many Cries For Water" reports most times your "hunger" is your body begging for water - not food.
It's also extremely important to remember that when the person's organism is dehydrated, fat cells get "rubbery" and cannot be merely metabolized. This explains why it's harder to get rid of unwanted pounds when you don't drink your water.
Water and Your Skin
According to dr. F. Batmanghelidj MD, author of "Your Body's Many Cries For Water" our skin is a great indicator of dehydration. If the skin is nice and loose and smooth, then we are hydrated. If it becomes creasy and shriveled, it means dehydration. The crow's feet on the face of elderly people, that's a sign of dehydration. The turkey neck under the chin is a sign of dehydration. These are mentioned in my books, Your Body's Many Cries for Water, and also in my Water For Health, For Healing, For Life. I recommend everyone to read Water Cures, Drugs Kill, because in this book I've identified over 90 health problems that we in medicine have called disease, and yet water cures them.

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History of Islamic Medicine 18

There are incidences of water intoxication in infants. If babies under one year are given excessive water, it can lead to seizures. Also something that many parents might not realize is that swimming lessons for infants can cause too much water ingestion and also lead to seizures, so it’s recommended that swimming lessons are postponed until after one year.
If it is excessively hot weather, parents may feel inclined to supplement with water, but doctors advice that breastfeeding mothers simply increase their water intake, and mothers of formula-fed infants stick to the 3 or 3 ounces, if at all.
If You Give Baby Water
As for the type of water to give baby, that is a subject still up for debate. Distilled, tap, spring, boiled? Many doctors say that after 6 months, boiling tap water isn’t necessary, and may even contribute to later issues like asthma and eczema due to the concept of “over-sterilization.” There is the belief that tap water is actually tested more often for safety than bottled, and that buying bottled water is only a waste of money. If you’re nervous about your city’s tap water, try using a good sink filter, or have it tested.
Distilled water like Nursery Water is still a popular type to mix with formula, but bottled or spring water are not highly recommended because of mineral content.
Water is Better Than Juice
When you do switch from bottle to sippy cup, as many parents do at about a year, this is the time to introduce water as the primary drink over juice. This begins healthy habits and doesn’t familiarize your child to the taste of sugar. Doctors usually recommend no more than 4 ounces of juice per day. At this age, when baby is eating solid foods, over-consumption of water is not a huge concern and baby should just drink to satisfy thirst, mostly with water and milk.
To give water or not? Ask your doctor and your mother, and when in doubt – just give the kid an empty plastic bottle to platy with!
How much water should we drink?
As well as drinking water and other drinks (juice, tea), we get much of the water that we need from food. For example many fruits and vegetables are up to 90% water. How much water we need to drink depends on several things including the weather, what we are doing and how healthy we are.
* For healthy children and adults, thirst is a good guide to when and how much they need to drink.
* If children are able to get drinks of water easily, whenever they want to, they will drink enough. If children are not able to get their own drinks of water at school or kindergarten, give them a bottle of tap water to take.
* Trying to get a child to drink water when he or she is not thirsty, can lead to unneeded battles.
* More drinks will be needed if people are exercising.
* Water is much better than juices and soft drinks.
o The high sugar content in these drinks can damage teeth and lead to extra weight gain.
o Juices and soft drinks can interfere with children’s appetite so they may not get all the nutrients they need.
o Limit fruit juice to one small glass each day with a meal.
o Tea, coffee, sport or 'energy' drinks and alcohol should not be given to children.
o Save cordial and soft drinks for special occasions like parties or birthdays.

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History of Islamic Medicine 17

Water is the most important resource. Without water life is not possible. From a chemical point of view, water, H2O, is a pure compound, but in reality, you seldom drink, see, touch or use pure water. Water from various sources contains dissolved gases, minerals, organic and inorganic substances. This photograph of Guilin shows the beauty of natural water. The rain curved an interesting landscape out of the lime stones in the area. Natural waters are often important parts of wonders of the world. The total water system surrounding the planet Earth is called the hydrosphere. It includes freshwater systems, oceans, atmosphere vapour, and biological waters. The Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans cover 71% of the Earth surface, and contain 97% of all water. Less than 1% is fresh water, and 2-3 % is ice caps and glaciers. The Antarctic Ice Sheet is almost the size of North America continent. These waters dominate our weather and climate, directly and indirectly affecting our daily lives. They cover 3.35x108 km2. The four oceans have a total volume of 1.35x109 km3.The sunlight dims by 1/10 for every 75 m in the ocean, and humans barely see light below 500 m. The temperature of almost all of the deep ocean is 4°C (277 K).The average ocean depth is 4 km, and the deepest point at the Mariana Trench is 10,912 m (35,802 ft), which compares to the height of 8.8 km for Mount Everest.A Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition is on view at Museum of Science Boston, Massachussetts October 10, 1998 to January 3, 1999. This web site takes you to the sight and sound of deep oceans almost just as good as the exhibits.The distribution of water and other materials on Earth is given in Planetary Parameters. Many fact sheets are available in this link. Hydrospheric processes are steps by which water cycles on the planet Earth. These processes include sublimation of ice, evaporation of liquid, transportation of moisture by air, rain, snow, river, lake, and ocean currents. All these processes are related to the physical and chemical properties of water, and many government agencies are set up to study and record phenomena related to them. The study of these processes is called hydrologyAmong the planets, Earth is the only one in which there are solid, liquid and gaseous waters. These conditions are just right for life, for which water is a vital part. Water is the most abundant substance in the biosphere of Earth.Groundwater is an important part of the water system. When vapor is cooled, clouds and rain develop. Some of the rain percolate through the soil and into the underlying rocks. The water in the rocks is groundwater, which moves slowly.A body of rock, which contains appreciable quantities of water, is called an aquifier. Below the water table, the aquifier is filled (or saturated) with water. Above the water table is the unsaturated zone. Some regions have two or more water tables. These zones are usually separated by water-impermeable material such as boulder and clay.Groundwater can be brought to the surface by drilling below the water table, and pumped out. The amount of water that can be pumped out depends on the structure of the aquifer. Little water is stored in tight granite layers, but large quantities of water are stored in limestone aquifier layers. In some areas, there are under ground rivers. Hydrology is also the study of how solids and solute interact in, and with, water. In this link, the compositions of seawater, composition of the atmosphere, compositions of rain and snow, and compositions of river waters and lake waters are given in details.A simplified table of the major ions present in seawater from the above link is given here. The composition does vary, depending on region, depth, latitude, and water temperature. Waters at the river mouths contain less salt. If the ions are utilized by living organism, its contents vary according to the populations of organisms.Dust particles and ions present in the air are nucleation center of water drops. Thus, waters from rain and snow also contain such ions: Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, NH4+. These cations are balanced by anions, HCO3-, SO4-, NO2-, Cl-, and NO3-. The pH of rain is between 5.5 and 5.6.Rain and snow waters eventually become river or lake waters. When the rain or snow waters fall, they interact with vegetation, top soil, bed rock, river bed and lake bed, dissolving whatever is soluble. Bacteria, algae, and water insects also thrive. Solubilities of inorganic salts are governed by the kinetics and equilibria of dissolution. The most common ions in lake and river waters are the same as those present in rainwater, but at higher concentrations. The pH of these waters depends on the river bed and lake bed. Natural waters contain dissolved minerals. Waters containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are usually called hard water.

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