Claude Louis Berthollet Died On 21 July 1822

Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749.
Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds.
He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO3), is known as Berthollet's Salt.
Bertholett first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785.
Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium.
Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist Joseph Proust on the validity of the law of definite proportions. While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to the ratio of the reactants initially taken. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority. His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811. But it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor.
Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt, and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte.
In April, 1789 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.
He died in Arcueil, France in 1822.

Read More

Revolution in Nicaragua 19 July 1979

Eventually Samoza realised the war was over, fleeing with his family to Miami, Florida on the 17th of July, 1979. The National Guard collapsed and by the 19th of July the Sandinistas held power. Hundreds of thousands of jubilant Managuans greeted the ragtag Sandinista rebels in celebrating the overthrow of the hated Somoza and the Guard. However, no sooner had the revolutionaries come to power than their old foe was plotting moves against them.In 1980 Ronald Reagan won office partly on the back of a renewed anti-communist foreign policy. All aid was cut to Nicaragua, economic sanctions were imposed and loans from the World Bank and the Inter American Development Bank were effectively halted. Worse though than the economic strangulation was the CIA-guided formation of the contras, a counterrevolutionary force comprised largely of former National Guard officers.By late 1981 the Contras were terrorising peasants living in the northern areas bordering Honduras. These incursions continued throughout the early 1980s, leading former CIA director, Stansfield Turner, to describe the Contras' behavior as 'state sponsored terrorism'. Indeed, in light of the current 'war on terrorism' it is interesting to note that in 1985 the International Court of Justice at the Hague ruled that the United States was guilty of terrorism against Nicaragua, estimating that the Americans owed the Nicaraguans some $14 billion for damages.In 1985 the US Congress voted to cut aid to the Contras. However, by this stage the CIA could not let go and continued to fund the Contras though secret arms sales to Iran. The Sandinistas continued to defeat the Contras on the battleground but incurred a steady drain of resources and loss of human life for their struggle. By the late 1980s, with their superior source of funding, the Contra strategy was to fight a war of attrition.The strategy worked. In 1985 elections the Sandinistas' won 60% of the vote but the result reversed in 1990 elections, with some 60% of the votes going against them. In the face of the protracted war, Nicaraguans had lost their enthusiasm for revolutionary ideals and their stomach for continued violence. Washington's candidate, Violeta Chamorro, had won power for the Liberal party.Subsequent elections held in 1996 and 2001 saw the Liberals retain power. Nicaguan voters understandably had no desire to provoke the Americans with the wrong election result, despite the fact that Sandinista policies have undergone major changes. No longer do the Sandinistas denounce the US as the "enemy of humankind", rather they have gone out of their way to convince Washington that a future Sandinista government would play by their rules, promising prompt debt repayment, strict adherence to structural adjustment programs, a commitment to free enterprise and the desire for swift integration into the Free Trade Area of the Americas scheme. Huge US flags even decorated the Sandinistas closing 2001 campaign rally. Reminiscent of a repentant Winston Smith feeling love for Big Brother at the end George Orwell's novel 1984, the back of the Nicaraguan revolutionary struggle has been broken, with the Sandinistas proclaiming their love for their big neighbour to the north.

Read More

Shaikh Hussain Kashif al-Ghita Died On 19 july

AYATULLAH MOHAMMED HUSSAIN KASHIF AL GITHA
Name : Sheik Mohammed Hussain Kashif al Ghita ibn e Sh. Ali Kashif al Githa
Born : 1214 H (1872 A.D.) At : Najaf e Ashraf, Iraq
Died : 1373 H At :Karand Village, near Qanqeen, Iraq
It was the year 1214 H/1872 A.D. In a narrow lane of the Amara neighborhood of Najaf e Ashraf there was unusual movement of women in an old fashioned house.From the small ventilators of the room constructed with bricks the rays of sunlight were passing through around the time of Asr prayer. Sheik Ali Kashif al Ghita was seated at a corner in the courtyard. He was in deep thoughts. It was his ancestral house and his father and grand father too were born there. The door of the room opened, a woman emerged from there and before she could utter a word, the cries of the newborn baby were heard from the room! Sheik Ali looked towards the room and the newborn announced his arrival to the doting father! He was still to know if the child was a son or a daughter! In a moment the woman came near him and gave him the good tiding of a son. Sheik Ali looked towards the sky and thanked Allah. Sheik Ali stood up and walked with soft feet towards the room. He opened the door and his greeting and his shadows reached inside before he entered! His spouse gently acknowledged his greeting. He picked up the baby. He talked with his wife for a while and then gently recited the following words in the right ear of the baby:
Allaho Akbar, Allahl Akbar, Allaho Akbar, Allaho Akbar.
Ashadu an laa ilaha il Allah
Ashadu anna Muhammedan Rasool Allah
After the Adaan the Sheik recited the Iqama in the left ear of the baby. Thus the Islamic upbringing commences from the time a baby is born! Even prior to the birth of a baby there are certain regimen prescribed for the parents. They must consume Halal (liegitimate) food and keep away from disturbing thoughts. Sheik Ali selected the name of Mohammed Hussain for his newborn son. With his innocent looks Mohammed Hussain was the focus of attention of all the inmates of the house. He slowly started crawling and walking. Mohammed Hussain had a younger sibling, Ahmed, who was born one year after him. The two kids used to play around in the lanes of Najaf e Ashraf. During 1300 H people were celebrating the Thirteenth Hundredth Anniversary of the migration of the Prophet (s.a) to Madina Munawwara, when these two kids were busy in their childish play from morning to the evening! When Mohammed Hussain was six years of age, his formal Islamic education commenced. Whenever the father stood up to offer his prayers, the innocent kids used to stand behind him emulating his movements. They used to be with the father when he went for the majlis gatherings. They used to be in tow with the parents on their visits to the Mausoleum of Imam Ali (a.s). The parents used to lift them up to touch the railing of the sarcophagus. On emerging out of the mausoleum the kids would play with the pigeons. At the age of 10 years Mohammed Hussain started attending classes at the Hauza e Ilmia Najaf.
The Hauza e Ilmia Najaf e Ashraf was shedding its radiance for over a thousand years when Mohammed Hussain Kashif al Ghita entered its portals. It used to be the wish of every student to get an opportunity to become an alumnus of this center of learning. The students reached there braving all the hardships of travel from many countries in the World. It was doubly felicitous for them that they were having the opportunity of the Ziarat of the mausolia of Amir al Momineen (a.s) and Imam Hussain (a.s). Mohammed Hussain commenced his studies at the Hauza with the Arabic Grammer. The Arabic Grammer, Eloquence, Oration and Rhetoric are included in the initial lessons of the curriculum of the Hauza. In a very short while Mohammed Hussain acquired proficiency in Grammer, Eloquence and Mathematics. Then he busied himself in the study of Fiqh and the Principles of Fiqh. Logic too is a part of the intial curriculum at the Hauza. The discipline of Fiqh is deducing the tenets if Islam through the study of the Verses of the Holy Quran and the traditions of the Prophet (s.a). Mohammed Hussain’s was a restless spirit. He was only 15 years of age but was deeply engrossed in his studies. He somehow had a feeling that he was in search of something that he had lost.
Mohammed Hussain started research into the history of his family. He thought, perhaps, he would get an answer to his search through this research. Therefore, at the age of 15 he penned the histiry of his family with the title of “Kitab al Abaqaat al Ambaria fi Tabaqaat al Jaafariah”. He sent a copy of the book to his uncle who was residing at Isfahan. One manuscript of the book, in four volumes, is in the library at Astana e Rizvia Mashad and another at the library of Majlis e Shura Islami. Everyone was surprised with his erudition at such a tender age. Most of his contemporaries had squandered their time in aimless gallivanting. But Mohammed Hussain strived from his very early childhood to study the biographies of the great Ulema. His thirst for knowledge was unquenchable. His quest continued but he wasn’t able to guage what he was in search of!
“Shias were a small group of people but are now non-existent!”
This isn’t the statement of any ignoramus who spends his life of a rustic in the jungles! This was utterd by Georgy Zaidan (Died 1914 A.D.) the author of Lughat al Arabia (The Arabic Dictionary). He was the author of many books and had penned the History of Arabic Literature in four volumes! Such a person had stooped so low to utter the canard!
Three close friends resolved to refute this canard and clarify the facts about Shi’ism and the civilization of this large group of Muslims. It is a pity that lot of people are oblivious of the service of thousands of erudite Shia writers. The more pitiable thing is that they don’t take notice of the large Shia population in Iraq, Iran and other countries. Do we have to believe that a scholar of the status of Georgy Zaidan hadn’t the opportunity of perusing the Shii writings spread over the thousand years of human History! No just person would accept the contention of Georgy Zaidan!
Kashif al Ghita Mohammed Hussain, along with his friends, Ayatollah Sayed Hassan Sadr (Died 1354H) and Ayatollah Sheik Aqa Buzurg Tehrani (Died 1389 H) determined to pen fitting replies to the contention of Georgy Zaidan.
It was decided by the three that Hassan would conduct research on the contribution of the Shias in various Islamic Disciplines. After years of intensive research he penned his book “Taasees al Shia lil Uloom al Islam”.
Sheik Aqa Buzurg Tehrani traveled far and wide to refer to books in the libraries and compiled a bibliography of over 50,000 books written by eminent Shia authors. It was a befitting reply to the statement of Georgy Zaidan that there was no trace of Shias or any of their effects in the world!
Allama Kashif al Ghita took upon himself the task of writing a reply to the book of Georgy Zaidan “Tareeq Aadaab al Lughat”. He wrote a voluminous critique of the book and even pointed out the errors of diction in the author’s work.
Kashif al Ghita married in Lebanon. Now he started getting concerned about the expenses of his family. Therefore he moved to Egypt. Egypt is the heart of the Arab Nation and the University of Al Azhr the heart beat of the great nation! Azhr is the highest center of Sunni Islamic learning. The vice chancellor and the professors of the University were aware of the erudition of Kashif al Ghita. They welcomed him wholeheartedly. Sayed Jamal al Din Asadabadi and Ayatullah Sayed Abd al Hussain Sharf al Din had already taught at Al Azhr some years ago. Thus the people at the University had the experience of hearing the talks of eminent Shia scholars.Kashif al Ghita first attended a few lectures of the Sunni professors. The students were much impressed with the erudition and gentle manners of Kashif al Ghita. They expressed their wish to hear talks from him on the subjects of Fiqh and the discipline of Balagha (Eloquence). He therefore acceded to their wish and started delivering a series of lectures. Kashif al Ghita made the best use of his time. He engrossed the students, the teachers, the writers and the poets as was done by Sayed Jamal al din Asadabadi some years ago. Sayed Jamal al Din’s theme used to be the stratagem of the imperialists to create dissensions among the people in the Islamic countries. His talks, replete with emotions, oftentimes made the audiences cry! Kashif al Ghita took upon himself the responsibility of carrying forward his message.
In 1332 H (1914 A.D.) the First World War started. Britain had occupied many Iraqi cities. The Ottoman regime suffered defeat after defeat.Kashif al Ghita was in Lebanon those days. He got the sad news of the occupation of his dear mother-land and immediately started his journey to Iraq. He reached Kuwait and learned that the enemy troops were surrounded by the Iraqi troops and the youths of the Nation. Kashif al Ghjita joined the ranks of the defenders of the country and committed himself wholeheartedly to the task.
The Shia Marjas had given an edict for Jihad against the aggressors. Many Mujtahids from the Hauza e Ilmia Najaf were actively involved in the fight. Many of Kashif al Ghita’s contemporaries attained martyrdom. The world War had involved many countries in the conflict and millions of human beings lost their lives. Several cities in the world were destroyed and the entire populations annihilated.
The family of Kashif al Ghita had managed the Madrasa e Motamad for well over a century. The school was very near the residence of Kashif al Ghita. Masjid e Toosi and the mausoleum of the Kashif al Ghita family too were located in the Ammara neighborhood of Najaf e Ashraf. The building of the school was in acute disrepair. Kashif al Ghita engaged all his energies in the renovation of the school building. The library of the school had one of the largest collections of books. There were several rare manuscripts in the library. Kashif al Ghita visited the Madrasa every day and looked after the progress of the alumni. He also held discussions about the world affairs during these visits. He also attended to his correspondence during his visits to the school. Till his last days this was the routine of Kashif al Ghita. Many disciples of Kashif al Ghita attended his talks at the Haram of Ali (a.s) and the Mausoleum of Meerzai Shirazi. Mohammed Jawad Mughnia, a renowned writer and scholar was one of his disciples. Ayatullah Mohsin Hakim, Ayatullah Sayed Razi Shirazi, Ayatullah Sayed Murtada Hami and Zafuli too were his eminent disciples. Madrasa e Motamad, also known as Madrasa Kashif al Ghita, used to meet the expenses of the students there. He represented to the government of the day and got special grants sanctioned for the purpose.
It would be of interest to quote an incident from the life of Kashif al Ghita here. One day, after the lesson he said to his students, “I have a daughter who has reached the age of consent. If I find a morally upright and religious young person, I shall give her in marriage to him.” Hearing this, one of the students got up and sat down. According to the custom of that time, this meant that he was offering himself as a match for the daughter of the eminent cleric. Kashif al Ghita asked the boy to follow him home and adjourned the class. The student went behind him. The cleric knew that the boy was morally upright and a good student in the group. He knew that the boy was a good practitioner of the moral values of Islam. But neither did he have any wealth nor property. Kashif al Ghita told his daughter that there was a proposal for her from a bot who was morally and religiously upright but had no worldly wealth. Would she be interested in marrying the boy? She told her father that all the aauthority vested in him. The contract of marriage was immediately drawn; the young couple was tied in wedlock. Kashif al Ghita vacated one room at his house and settled the couple there. When he got up for the night prayer, he knocked at the door of the young couple and said, “I have placed a contatiner of water at the door of such and such a room. Go and offer prayers” The couple performed the Ghusl and offered Salah al Layl. Kashif al Ghita’s son-in-law, Sheik Mohammed Taqi, reached such a high state of learning that he could write a commentary on “Ma-alim”. Even now his commentary is recognized as very authoritative.
A group of Palestinian Muslim intellectuals decided to call a conference of Muslim scholars. Till that time Palestine wasn’t occupied by the Israelis. Shia and Sunni scholars from Asia and Africa reached Palestine for the conference. Representatives from most of the sects, Hanafi, Shafaee, Maliki, Hanbali, Wahabi, Nasibi, Khawarij, Ismailis, Zaidias, were in attendance. The aim of the conference was to deliberate the future prospects of the Muslims and the Islamic states. The Mufti of Bayt al Muqaddas invited Kashif al Ghita to participate in the conference. In his lecture at the conference Kashif al Ghita said that what the world Muslims needed was unity among their ranks. He exhorted them to shun internecine rivalries that always gave a big advantage to the Imperialist forces. They stoked rivalries between Muslims for their selfish motives. He said that the Jews were united and the Muslims were divided into interest groups. He said that if a Jew in Iraq had any problems, the other Jews wouldn’t remain silent spectators. To the contrary, the Muslims wouldn’t bother about the problems of their Muslim brothers! He appealed to the Shias and Sunnis to unite
Kashif al Ghita wrote several important books. “Al Firdous al Aala” is one of his most important works. This book encompasses Tahreek e Hussaini (The Hussaini Movement), philosophical discussions, commentary on the verses of the Holy Quran, supplications and prayers for different occasions. This book was published in Najaf e Ashraf in the year 1371 H. Kashif al Ghita’s disciple, Shaheed Qazi Tabatabai, published another edition at Qum in 1402 H with the permission of the author. Imran Ali Zahid published a Persian translation of the book with the title of “Bahisht e Bareen” from Tabriz. The second volume of the book came out under the title of “Jannat al Maawa” This volume is a collection of miscellaneous writings of Kashif al Ghita. The other important book written by Kashif al Ghita is “Daerat al mu-aarif al Ulia” In this book hie discussed about the Prophet (s.a) and the Ahl al Bayt (a.s)
Kashif al Ghita was an octogenarian and was keeping indifferent health at that advanced age. It was suggested to him to move to a more salubrious place to recuperate his health and energy. He therefore moved to a village, Karand, half way between Mansha and Qanqeen on 15 Zilqidda. Kashif al Ghita had traveled to the place earlier too for a change. He was familiar with the palce and the people there. Taqi Mashadi Karandi was briskly walking along with his son on the streets of Karand. He had heard that Kashif al Ghita had arrived and he was eager with happiness to meet him as soon as he could. He barged into the room of Kashif al Ghita and greeted him. The very first look at the face of the worthy gave him an idea of the condition of the health of the guest. He uttered a word of encouragement saying that with Allah’s help he would be restored to good health. At that moment Hussain Karbalai, the helper at the mosque, came into the room and made enquiries about the health of the guest. Many persons from the small village arrived in no time on hearing of his arrival. The Ustad Shaaban’s son, Mehdi, was sitting at the extreme corner of the room. When the Aqa had visited Karand seven years ago, he was 10 years of age. He had now grown into a youth. That time he used to be with the Aqa wherever he went. He remembered the hardship that Kashif al Ghita went through during the construction of the mosque at Karand. Two days went by and some improvement was noticed in the health of the guest. On the third day, after the morning prayers, the condition of Kashif al Ghita suddenly deteriorated. As the sun was rising, he had breathed his last! The people of Karand carried his bier and took his mortal remains to the mosque!

Read More

Tariq ibn Ziyad (Umayyad Conquest of Hispania, Spain)

Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, also spelled Tarik Ibn Zeyad (died c. 720), general who led the Muslim conquest of Spain.Mūsā ibn Nuṣayr, the Arab conqueror of Morocco, left his general Ṭāriq to govern Tangier in his place. Spain at this time was under Visigothic rule but was rent by civil war. The dispossessed sons of the recently deceased Visigothic king of Spain, Witiza, appealed to the Muslims for help in the civil war, and the Arabs quickly responded to this request in order to conquer Spain for themselves. In May 711 Ṭāriq landed on Gibraltar with an army of 7,000 men, mostly Berbers, Syrians, and Yemenis. Gibraltar henceforth became known as Jabal Ṭāriq (Mount Tarik), from which the Anglicized form of the name is adapted. Ṭāriq soon advanced to the Spanish mainland itself, gaining valuable support from Spanish Jews who had been persecuted by the Visigoths and from Christian supporters of Witiza’s sons. In July 711 he defeated the forces of the Visigothic usurper king Roderick at an undetermined location. He then immediately marched upon Toledo, the capital of Spain, and occupied that city against little resistance. He also conquered Córdoba. Mūsā himself arrived in Spain with about 18,000 more Arab troops in 712, and together the two generals occupied more than two-thirds of the Iberian peninsula in the next few years. In 714 Mūsā and Ṭāriq were summoned by the caliph back to Damascus, where they were both accused of misappropriation of funds and died in obscurity.

Read More

Imam Reza shrine rebellion 12 July 1935

In 1935 a backlash against the modernizing, anti-religious policies of Reza Shah erupted in the Mashed shrine. Responding to a cleric who denounced the Shah's heretical innovations, corruption and heavy consumer taxes, many bazaaris and villagers took refuge in the shrine, chanted slogans such as "The Shah is a new Yezid." For four full days local police and army refused to violate the shrine and the standoff was ended when troops from Azerbaijan arrived and broke into the shrine, killing dozens and injuring hundreds, and marking a final rupture between Shi'ite clergy and the Shah.

Read More

The History of the Fahrenheit Thermometer (08 July 1714)

What can be considered the first modern thermometer, the mercury thermometer with a standardized scale, was invented by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1714.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit was the German physicist who invented a alcohol thermometer in 1709, and the mercury thermometer in 1714. In 1724, he introduced the standard temperature scale that bears his name - Fahrenheit Scale - that was used to record changes in temperature in an accurate fashion.
The Fahrenheit scale divided the freezing and boiling points of water into 180 degrees. 32°F was the freezing pint of water and 212°F was the boiling point of water. 0°F was based on the temperature of an equal mixture of water, ice, and salt. Fahrenheit based his temperature scale on the temperature of the human body. Originally, the human body temperature was 100° F on the Fahrenheit scale, but it has since been adjusted to 98.6°F.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) was the German physicist who invented the alcohol thermometer in 1709, and the mercury thermometer in 1714. In 1724, he introduced the temperature scale that bears his name - Fahrenheit Scale

Read More

Official Independence of Venezuela on 05 July 1811

On April 19, 1810, leading citizens of Venezuela voted to break with Spain and declare independence. This declaration was conditional, however: they actually declared themselves loyal to deposed King Ferdinand, then a prisoner of the French. Once Ferdinand was restored, they would revert to colonial status. On July 5, 1811, however, Venezuela declared a complete and irrevocable break from Spain. Led by Simon Bolivar and others, there would be no going back for the first Latin American nation to head out on its own.
From time to time, different historical incidents have modified and led to the creation of the present day Venezuela. Different theories have been woven around the origin and history of Venezuela and its inhabitants over the past thousand years or more. It was believed that the first Venezuelans were traced back at around 13000 B.C., who were actually believed to be settlers from the neighboring nations of Brazil, Guyana and Antilles as we know them in present day. The history of Venezuela is marked by many events.
So here's sharing with you some glimpses about the glorious history of Venezuela.
Spanish Invasion----
Though originally inhabited by natives of Carib and Arawak Indians, it was only in 1498 that Christopher Columbus established itself as Spanish territory followed by a colonial rule by the Spanish rulers for a considerable time. Towards 18th century, there was wide spread revolt against the ruling Spanish empire led by Simón Bolívar against the injustice meted out to them. With the discovery of gold mines in Yaracuy, slavery was introduced thereby leading to class conflicts and growth of feudalism.
Political History of Venezuela in 19 th century---
Within a few days time, political turmoil in then Venezuela received a great impetus with the out break of Napoleonic War in Europe which led to the weakening of Spain's imperial hold over the province. Due to ongoing political conflicts, some regions remained neglected while others were brought under the jurisdiction of Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1777; special emphasis and development were focused on those provinces and regions which served as main source of economy for the rulers. However, on April 19 th in 1810 after a sudden but brief political coup, they achieved independence from the Spanish rulers on 5 th July 1811 which is now officially accepted as Venezuelan Independence Day.
20th Century History of Venezuela—
Simon Bolivar is credited as the leader of freedom struggle in Venezuela along with Jose Paez who declared it a sovereign state on 1830. It was under the rule of Juan Vincente Goméz, between 1909 and 1935, that saw a rapid phase of economic development and growth followed by social expansion and up gradation. In 1936 and 1937, democratic elections were held for the post of Presidency of Venezuela which later on led to the formation of National Assembly. Through out the years, the country has faced political instability as a result successive governments were formed which in fact could last long. It was only in 1992 that Hugo Chavez established himself as important political figure and formed his own party known as Movimiento Quinta República (MVR, the Fifth Republic Movement), and won the Presidential election in 1998, with the support of smaller fractions of political party and formed his own government subsequently.
Further more in the elections of 2000, the citizens of the country saw him as a serious candidate for the post of President of the country and voted him too. He won by a huge majority. Within few days of assuming his office he formulated some constitutional changes thereby increasing more powers for the President.

Read More

The Element Nickel Was Discovered on 3 July 1751

Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1722-65) was the first person to realize that nickel was a new element. In 1751, he was given a new mineral from a cobalt mine near the town of Hälgsingland, Sweden. While Cronstedt thought the ore might contain cobalt or copper, his tests produced a surprising result. He found something in the mineral that did not act like cobalt, copper, or any other known element. Cronstedt announced that he had found a new element. He used a shortened version of Kupfernickel for the name of the new element. He called it nickel.
Nickel is the only element named after the devil. The name comes from the German word Kupfernickel, meaning "Old Nick's copper," a term used by German miners. They tried to remove copper from an ore that looked like copper ore, but they were unsuccessful. Instead of copper, they got slag, a useless mass of earthy material. The miners believed the devil ("Old Nick") was playing a trick on them. So they called the fake copper ore Old Nick's copper.
Since then, nickel has become a very valuable metal. The most common use is in the production of stainless steel, a strong material that does not rust easily. It is used in hundreds of industrial and consumer applications. Nickel is also used in the manufacture of many other alloys. An alloy is made by melting and mixing two or more metals. The mixture has properties different from those of the individual metals.
Nickel is a relatively unreactive element. At room temperature, it does not combine with oxygen or water or dissolve in most acids. At higher temperatures, it becomes more active. For example, nickel burns in oxygen to form nickel oxide (NiO):It also reacts with steam to give nickel oxide and hydrogen gas.

Read More

Abdal Husain-al-Ameeni of Najaf Died on 3 July 1970

The great research scholar, Allama Sayed Hamid Hus­ain Kintoori, has written a book in two volumes called Abaqatul-Anwar on the investigation of the innumerable sources through which the Hadith-e-Ghadir has come down to us. In recent years the eminent Alim, Ayat-Ullah Shaikh Abdal Husain-al-Ameeni of Najaf has listed the names of one hundred and ten companions of the Holy Prophet who have reported this tradition as eye-witnesses and eighty-three Tabe’in who heard it from their elders and three hundred and fifty-nine Ulema of all sects, arranged chronologically through each of the centuries since the time of the Prophet up to the present -day, who have recorded the sermon of Ghadir-E-Khum in their books and acknowledged its authenticity. Ayatullah-al-Aminis major opus ‘Al-Ghadir’, is a classic of erudition and painstaking research. The book establishes beyond doubt, whatever the criterion of verification adopted, the over­whelming incontrovertibility of the event of Ghadir i.e. the nomination of Ali. It also firmly prescribes the injunction that if ever any tradition is to be believed, the Hadith-e­-Ghadir holds the first claim to acceptance.

Read More

ZAVIEH, MOHAMMAD ALI Died on 2 July 1990

Ostad Mohammad Ali Zavieh was born in Teheran in 1291 A.H. In 1308 he entered the Higher School of Fine Arts (later renamed the Kamalolmolk School of Arts after its distinguished alumnus).
In 1319 A.H. he graduated with a background in miniature painting. Spending several years working as a museum director, Ostad Zavieh traveled throughout Iran and the world, producing various exhibitions of his work. At one of these events, he was awarded a gold medal in the Miniature Art category. Back in Iran, Zavieh also received a national recognition award from the Ministry of Art and Culture. Retiring in 1339 A.H., Ostad Zavieh has since opened a private studio.

Read More

The Night of the Long Knives 30 June 1934

The Night of the Long Knives - 150 leaders of the Stormtroopers SA were executed. Many members of the SA were committed socialists and demanded that Nazi policy embrace socialist aims. This was not a direction the Nazis wished to follow so the SA were eliminated.Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933, bringing an end to German democracy. Guided by racist and authoritarian ideas, the Nazis abolished basic freedoms and sought to create a "Volk" community. In theory, a "Volk" community united all social classes and regions of Germany behind Hitler. In reality, the Third Reich quickly became a police state, where individuals were subject to arbitrary arrest and imprisonment.In the first months of his chancellorship, Hitler began a concerted policy of "synchronization," forcing organizations, political parties, and state governments into line with Nazi goals and placing them under Nazi leadership. Culture, the economy, education, and law came under greater Nazi control. Trade unions were abolished and workers, employees, and employers were forced into Nazi organizations. By mid-July 1933, the Nazi party was the only political party permitted in Germany. The Reichstag (German parliament) became a rubber stamp for Hitler's dictatorship. The Fuehrer's will became the foundation for government policy.The appointment of Nazi party members to government positions increased Hitler's authority over state officials. According to the Nazi party's leadership principle, authority flowed down from above and absolute obedience towards one's superior was expected at each level of the Nazi hierarchy. Hitler was master of the Third Reich.The Night of the Long Knives, in June 1934, saw the wiping out of the SA's leadership and others who had angered Hitler in the recent past in Nazi Germany. After this date, the SS lead by Heinrich Himmler was to become far more powerful in Nazi Germany.For all the power the Enabling Act gave Hitler, he still felt threatened by some in the Nazi Party. He was also worried that the regular army had not given an oath of allegiance. Hitler knew that the army hierarchy held him in disdain as he was 'only ' a corporal in their eyes. The Night of the Long Knives not only removed the SA leaders but also got Hitler the army's oath that he so needed.

By the summer of 1934, the SA's numbers had swollen to 2 million men. They were under the control of Ernst Röhm, a loyal follower of Hitler since the early days of the Nazi Party. The SA had given the Nazi's an iron fist with which to disrupt other political parties meetings before January 1933. The SA was also used to enforce law after Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933. To all intents, they were the enforcers of the Nazi Party and there is no evidence that Röhm was ever planning anything against Hitler.

However, Röhm had made enemies within the Nazi Party - Himmler, Goering and Goebbels were angered by the power he had gained and convinced Hitler that this was a threat to his position.

By June 1934, the regular army hierarchy also saw the SA as a threat to their authority. The SA outnumbered the army by 1934 and Röhm had openly spoken about taking over the regular army by absorbing it into the SA. Such talk alarmed the army's leaders.By the summer of 1934, Hitler had decided that Röhm was a 'threat' and he made a pact with the army. If Röhm and the other SA leaders were removed, the rank and file SA men would come under the control of the army but the army would have to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler. The army agreed and Röhm's fate was sealed.On the night of June 29th - June 30th 1934, units of the SS arrested the leaders of the SA and other political opponents. Men such as Gregor Strasser, von Schleicher and von Bredow were arrested and none of them had any connection with Röhm. The arrests carried on for 2 more nights.Seventy seven men were executed on charges of treason though historians tend to think the figure is higher. The SA was brought to heel and placed under the command of the army. Hitler received an oath of allegiance from all those who served in the army. Röhm was shot. Others were bludgeoned to death.The first the public officially knew about the event was on July 13th 1934, when Hitler told the Reichstag that met in the Kroll Opera House, Berlin, that for the duration of the arrests that he and he alone was the judge in Germany and that the SS carried out his orders. From that time on the SS became a feared force in Nazi Germany lead by Heinrich Himmler. The efficiency with which the SS had carried out its orders greatly impressed Hitler and Himmler was to acquire huge power within Nazi Germany.

Read More

Attempt on life of Ayatollah Khamenei (27 June 1981)

After the victory of Iranian Islamic Revolution, the World Arrogance’s conspiracies against the nascent Islamic system increased, among them was equipping and empowering counterrevolutionary groups and flows. These deviant groups which had taken advantage of chaotic situation of the early Revolution era and looted weapons and ammunition began bombing attacks all over Iran, assassinating revolutionary combatant clergies and even ordinary people, and martyring several valuable figures. One of these groups was Forqan subversive group with its eclectic and deviant thought which engaged in assassination of many prominent figures of the system inclusive of Lieutenant General Qarani, Martyr Motahari, Martyr Haj Mehdi Araqi, Ayatollah Qazi Tabatabai and Martyr Mofateh. On June 27, 1981, Imam’s representative to High Council of Defense and Friday Imam of Tehran Ayatollah Khamenei who was answering people’s questions in Abuzar Mosque, Tehran, was seriously injured on the right side of his body subsequent to an explosion of a sound bomb. In a remainder piece of the tape recorder in which the bomb had been concealed it had been written, “The Gift of Forqan Group”. After the explosion he was transferred to hospital to be operated on. It was Divine Providence to keep him alive for the future of the system and be placed among the honorable veterans of the Islamic Revolution. On the occasion of this failed attempt Imam Khomeini issued a message, “Thanks God for appointing the enemies of Islam from among stupid groups and individuals and thanks God that all their plots and conspiracies since the very early days of the glorious Islamic Revolution have backfired leading to more integrity and unity among Iranian devoted nation… they attempted to assassinate a figure whose call of invitation to goodness and rightness is resonating in the ears of Muslims of the world… I congratulate to you dear Khamenei who have served this oppressed nation whether in military clothing or clerical dress and I ask God to heal you for your further services to Islam and Muslims”.

Read More

Simon Bolivar Freed Caracas On 24 June 1812

This soldier and statesman, earned the nickname El Libertador (the liberator), during his resistance against the Spanish colonial occupation. Simon Bolivar was born in Caracas on July 24th, 1783 and enjoyed education in both the Venezuelan capital city and Spain in private schools. Bolivar first fought the Spaniards under the command of Francisco de Miranda in 1810. They were defeated and Bolivar fled the country. In 1812 he undertook a new attempt and one year later, he freed Caracas that he subsequently lead as a dictator. In 1814 the Spaniards resurfaced and Bolivar had to seek refuge in Jamaica and later in Haiti. Bolivar did not give up and joined forces with Jose Antonio Paez and European volunteers. In 1817 he was victorious in his homeland and he installed a revolutionary government at Angostura, which would later be renamed Ciudad Bolivar. Even later he was elected president of Venezuela.
In 1819, Bolivar's forces moved through the Andes to Nova Granada, the former name for Colombia. The Spaniards were defeated with relative ease, so that this area was liberated. Several months later, on December 17, 1819, the Republic of Colombia was announced. This new republic included Nova Granada and Venezuela at this time. Bolivar was the president. The Spaniards tried to retake this area another time, but on June 24th, 1821 he was able finally to ensure the independence after the Battle of Carabobo.
Bolivar dreamed of a united Hispanic America. In 1822 he was able to liberate Quito, which is now known as Ecuador, from Spain. Quito was also annexed in The Republic of Colombia. In 1824 Bolivar led the revolutionaries who wanted to liberate Peru and one year later he became president of that country. In May 1925 he formed a new republic within Peru, now known as Bolivia, which was named after him. To ensure the independence of the new countries Bolivar organized inter-American conferences. But he failed in his quest for a political unity. In August 1828 he resigned as president on April 27, 1830, and he withdrew himself fully as a disillusioned man. In Venezuela and Bolivia his birthday is still the national holiday and in other South American nations, he is still honored as El Libertador. In Colombia you will find many statues of Simon Bolivar. On national holidays people lay flowers on his statues.

Read More

Samuel Taylor Coleridge Died on 23 June 1834

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the youngest son of the vicar of Ottery St Mary, Devon, was born in 1772. He was educated at Christ's Hospital and Jesus College, Cambridge with the intention of becoming a Church minister.
At university Coleridge became interested in politics and was a strong supporter of the French Revolution. In 1794 Coleridge met Robert Southey and the two men became close friends.
Coleridge and Southey developed radical political and religious views and began making plans to emigrate to Pennsylvania where they intended to set up a commune based on communistic values. Coleridge and Southey eventually abandoned this plan and instead stayed in England where they concentrated on communicating their radical ideas. This included the play they wrote together, The Fall of Robespierre.
In 1795 Coleridge and Robert Southey married two sisters, Sarah and Edith Flicker. Samuel and Sarah Coleridge moved to Bristol where he lectured at Unitarian chapels and wrote over fifty articles for the Morning Chronicle that gave him the opportunity to explain the ideas of Joseph Priestley and William Godwin to a large audience. The Morning Chronicle also published Coleridge's anti-war poem, Fire, Famine, Slaughter: A War Eclogue. Coleridge also edited the radical Christian journal, The Watchman.
In 1797 Coleridge met William Wordsworth. Together the two men developed a new poetry. The following year they published the book Lyrical Ballads which achieved a revolution in literary taste and sensibility. This included Coleridge's famous poems, the Ancient Mariner and The Nightingale. For the next few years Coleridge concentrated on writing poetry but an addiction to opium damaged the quality of his work.
Coleridge retained an interest in journalism and in 1809 began publishing his own newspaper, The Friend. This "literary, moral and political" newspaper came to an end after only 28 issues. He returned to poetry and in 1816 published Christabel and Kubla Khan.
Coleridge's writing during this period about what had gone wrong with society had a considerable influence on Christian Socialists such as Frederick Maurice and Charles Kingsley. However, Coleridge's articles in support of Lord Liverpool and his Tory government in The Courier caused William Hazlitt to denounce him as a "turncoat".
In his later years Coleridge wrote several important books on literature including Biographia Literaria (1817) and Aids to Reflection (1825). Samuel Taylor Coleridge died of a heart attack in 1834. Coleridge's later ideas that were revealed in conversations with friends, were collected together and edited by his nephew Henry Coleridge and appeared in the book Table Talk in 1836.

Read More

Majnoon Island (Iraq's Chemical Attack)

Majnoon Island is an island in southern Iraq near Al-Qurnah that is a center for oil production of the Majnoon Oilfield. The area was built out of sand dunes and mud to create pathways for oil pipelines.
Before the Gulf War, roughly a sixth of Iraq's oil reserves, some 7 million barrels (1,100,000 m3), passed through this island. Production quickly recovered after the site was a center of fighting in the Iran-Iraq War, particularly Operation Kheibar in 1984. However, following the imposition of United Nations sanctions and the 2003 Iraq War, production has presently reduced to 46,000 barrels per day (7,300 m3/d).
In December 2009, the Iraqi government awarded a license to a joint venture from Royal Dutch Shell and Petronas to take over operations at Majnoon Oilfield, and triple production from the estimated reserve of 13 billion barrels (2.1×109 m3) at a fee rate of $1.39/barrel. The joint venture company is 25% held by the Iraqi Ministry of Oil, 45% by Shell and 30% by Petronas.

Read More

The man who discovered Oxygen

One of the founding fathers of chemistry, Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) stumbled across photosynthesis, is credited with the discovery of oxygen and accidentally brought us soda water. He was also a member of BRLSI's predecessor, the Bath Philosophical Society.
Priestley was born in Birstal Fieldhead near Leeds in 13th March 1733, the eldest son of a cloth-dresser. His mother died when he was seven years old and his aunt mainly brought him up. He was educated for the dissenting ministry and spent much of his life both as a teacher and a preacher. Priestley was a true polymath, writing books and articles on theology, history, education, aesthetics and politics as well as science. During his lifetime he was as well known for his views on theology and politics as for his work in science.
Priestley married Mary Wilkinson in 1762. She was the daughter of Isaac and sister to John and William Wilkinson. All three men were prominent iron masters in the eighteenth century.
His scientific interests began around the middle of the 1760s. It was during this time that he began to write his book History and Present State of Electricity. For this work he received the help from several people. These included Benjamin Franklin (The American academic, politician and scientist who was present at the signing of the American Declaration of Independence), William Watson (An apothecary who lived in Bath and was also a member of the Bath Philosophical Society; he was also a friend of William Herschel) and John Canton (Another scientist born in the West country at Stroud in Gloucester in whose honour the Institute of Physics recently erected a blue plaque on his schoolhouse in Stroud).
While writing the book he carried out several experiments. Among them was an ingenious demonstration of the inverse square law of electrostatics. This is generally known as Coulomb's law but the work of Priestley in fact predates that of Coulomb by nearly twenty years. Mainly as a result of his work on electricity, he was elected to Fellowship of the Royal Society in 1766.

Read More

Woman in Space 16 June 1963

Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova becomes first woman to reach space on June 16, 1963.
Tereshkova.jpg“Originally it was intended that Tereshkova would launch first in Vostok 5 while Ponomaryova would follow her into orbit in Vostok 6. However, this flight plan was altered in March 1963. Vostok 5 would now carry a male cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky flying the joint mission with a woman aboard Vostok 6 in June 1963. The State Space Commission nominated Tereshkova to pilot Vostok 6 at their meeting on 21 May and this was confirmed by Nikita Khrushchev himself. At the time of her selection, Tereshkova was ten years younger than the youngest Mercury Seven astronaut, Gordon Cooper.
After watching the successful launch of Vostok 5 on 14 June Tereshkova began final preparations for her own flight. On the morning of 16 June 1963, Tereshkova and her back-up Solovyeva were both dressed in spacesuits and taken to the launchpad by bus. After completing her communication and life support checks, she was sealed inside the Vostok. After a flawless countdown, two hours later Vostok 6 launched faultlessly, and Tereshkova became the first woman and first civilian to fly into space. Her call sign in this flight was Chayka (English: Seagull). Although Tereshkova was in the state of nausea and physical discomfort for much of the flight , she orbited the earth 48 times and spent almost three days in space. With a single flight, she logged more flight time than the combined times of all American astronauts to that date. Tereshkova also maintained a flight log and took photographs of the horizon, which were later used to identify aerosol layers within the atmosphere.
Vostok 6 was the final Vostok flight and was launched only two days after Vostok 5 which carried Valery Bykovsky into orbit for five days, landing only three hours after Tereshkova. The two vessels were at one point only 5km apart and established a radio link.
Even though there were plans for further female flights it took 19 years until the second woman, Svetlana Savitskaya, flew into space, with the pressure of impending American Space Shuttle flights with female astronauts. None of the other four in Tereshkova’s cosmonaut group ever flew.”

Read More

Strategic Nuclear Arms Control Agreements 15 June 1979

In November 1972, Washington and Moscow agreed to pursue a follow-on treaty to SALT I. SALT II, signed in June 1979, limited U.S. and Soviet ICBM, SLBM, and strategic bomber-based nuclear forces to 2,250 delivery vehicles (defined as an ICBM silo, a SLBM launch tube, or a heavy bomber) and placed a variety of other restrictions on deployed strategic nuclear forces. The agreement would have required the Soviets to reduce their forces by roughly 270 delivery vehicles, but U.S. forces were below the limits and could actually have been increased. However, President Jimmy Carter asked the Senate not to consider SALT II for its advice and consent after the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, and the treaty was not taken up again. Both Washington and Moscow subsequently pledged to adhere to the agreement’s terms despite its failure to enter into force. However, on May 26, 1986, President Ronald Reagan said that future decisions on strategic nuclear forces would be based on the threat posed by Soviet forces and not on "a flawed SALT II Treaty.”

Read More

Alois Alzheimer born on 14 June 1864

Alois Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown.
Alzheimer attended Aschaffenburg, Tübingen, Berlin, and Würzburg universities. He received a medical degree at Würzburg University in 1887. In the following year, he spent five months assisting mentally ill women, before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt am Main: the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for lunatics and epileptics). Emil Sioli was the dean of that asylum (1852–1922). Another neurologist, Franz Nissl (1860–1919), began to work in that same asylum with Alzheimer, and they knew each other. Much of Alzheimer's later work on brain pathology made use of Nissl's method of silver staining of the histological sections. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie. He never wrote a book that he could call his own.
In 1901, Dr. Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt Asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory. This patient would become his obsession over the coming years. In April 1906, Mrs. Deter died and Alzheimer had the patient records and the brain brought to Munich where he was working at Kraepelin's lab. Together with two Italian physicians, he would use the staining techniques to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. A speech given on 3 November 1906 would be the first time the pathology and the clinical symptoms of presenile dementia would be presented together. Through extremely fortunate circumstances the original microscope preparations on which Alzheimer based his description of the disease were rediscovered some years ago in Munich and his findings could thus be reevaluated.

Read More

The French in Algeria AD 1830-1936

A French army, landing in June 1830, easily overpowers the forces of the dey. But this success brings France only a small region round Algiers, for the dey himself has long lost control of his subordinates in the provinces.
The city of Constantine, in the east, holds out against the French for seven years. Meanwhile the invading force is also under threat in the west from the powerful amir of Mascara, Abd-el-Kader. In 1839 Abd-el-Kader proclaims a jihad, or holy war, against the Christian intruders. Not until 1847 does he finally surrender. He is promised a safe conduct to a Muslim country. Instead he spends the next five years in French gaols.
With Algeria now under a reasonable degree of control (though outbreaks of rebellion continue until the 1880s), the French government sets in place the process of colonization. European settlement is actively encouraged. By the 1880s the European population of Algeria is more than 350,000. Half a century later this figure has doubled.
In the same period, from 1830 to the mid-20th century, the Muslim population also increases greatly, from 3 million to about 9 million. As in any such situation, the settlers ensure that economic and political power is exclusively theirs. And as elsewhere, the underprivileged majority begins to make itself heard during the 20th century.
The early leaders of Algerian nationalism see a solution in integration rather than separation. Muslim Algerians, they argue, should enjoy equal status with the settlers as French citizens. Ferhat Abbas (a future president of an independent Algerian parliament) writes in 1931: 'Algeria is French soil and we are French Muslims.'
In 1936 the French socialist government of Léon Blum sees the force of this argument. The so-called Blum-Violette plan proposes that 21,000 Muslims should immediately have the vote on the same terms as European settlers. But this provokes an outcry from the settlers in Algeria. The proposal is dropped. The problems of the future, though postponed by World War II, are prefigured in this clash.
Nationalism and reaction in Algeria: AD 1945-1958
The demands of Algerian nationalism become unmistakable immediately after the end of the war in Europe. In May 1945 demonstrators carrying Algerian Nationalist flags appear at victory celebrations in the town of Sétif.
Scuffles with the police spark an impromptu uprising in which eighty-eight French settlers are killed. Subsequent French reprisals result in at least 1500 Muslim deaths (the official French figure), though other estimates place the death toll as high as 10,000.
In the aftermath of this crisis the National Assembly in Paris passes, in 1947, a Statute of Algeria. This makes provision for an Algerian assembly, with Muslims forming part of the electorate. The assembly is duly elected, and there is much talk of wide-ranging reforms in the administration of the colony.
Several years later the delegates have delivered little in the way of effective legislation, when Algerian life is suddenly transformed by a wholly unexpected uprising. During the night of 31 October 1954 several coordinated terrorist attacks are carried out on French police and military establishments.
A manifesto issued on November 1 declares them to be the work of the recently formed FLN (Front de Libération Nationale), stating also that the political aim of the FLN is a fully independent Algeria. Every resident in the country is promised citizenship of the proposed new republic, with full rights, if willing to adopt Algerian nationality.
Terrorist violence and French reprisals now become an established pattern in Algeria. There is a vast build up of French troops, and the army forcibly resettles some two million villagers to try and deprive the FLN of rural support.
Meanwhile the FLN, joined by nearly all the other Algerian nationalist groups, establishes an extremely sophisticated government in exile, first in Cairo then in Tunis. Diplomatic representation is maintained at the UN and in friendly capitals around the world. From September 1958 this body is known as the GPRA (Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne), with the veteran nationalist Ferhat Abbas serving as prime minister.
A few months earlier the Algerian crisis has caused a major political upheaval within France itself - as a result of direct action by the settlers (known as the pieds-noirs, black feet).
In May 1958 angry French Algerians become alarmed that the government in Paris may come to terms with the FLN. They seize government buildings in Algiers and establish a Committee of Public Safety to ensure that Algeria remains French. Senior officers of the French army in Algeria side with the insurgents, while right-wing groups in Paris become equally agitated. With the danger of nation-wide disturbances, or even perhaps civil war, there is clearly need for a change of government.
A French general in Algeria expresses the mood of the moment, and the apparent best hope for the pieds-noirs, when he declares: 'We appeal to General de Gaulle to take the leadership of a Government of Public Safety.'

Read More