Claude Louis Berthollet Died On 21 July 1822

Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749.
Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds.
He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches, being first to introduce the use of chlorine gas as a commercial bleach in 1785. He first produced a modern bleaching liquid in 1789 in his laboratory on the quay Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite. Another strong chlorine oxidant and bleach which he investigated and was the first to produce, potassium chlorate (KClO3), is known as Berthollet's Salt.
Bertholett first determined the elemental composition of the gas ammonia, in 1785.
Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium.
Berthollet was engaged in a long-term battle with another French chemist Joseph Proust on the validity of the law of definite proportions. While Proust believed that chemical compounds are composed of a fixed ratio of their constituent elements irrespective of the methods of production, Berthollet believed that this ratio can change according to the ratio of the reactants initially taken. Although Proust proved his theory by accurate measurements, his theory was not immediately accepted partially due to Berthollet's authority. His law was finally accepted when Berzelius confirmed it in 1811. But it was found later that Berthollet was not completely wrong because there exists a class of compounds that do not obey the law of definite proportions. These non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor.
Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt, and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte.
In April, 1789 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1801, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.
He died in Arcueil, France in 1822.

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Reformer of Islamic ummah Ayatollah Khomeini Revived Religion, Islam

The gradual imperial invasions of Ottoman Empire at the hands of Portuguese capitalists in 17th century opened it to the European Colonial careerists. The Empire, for seven centuries (from 1300 AD to 20th century), had had a remarkable, unrivalled expansion in most of the Middle-East and Europe. It marked the glorious times of the spread of Islam to the forbidden corners of world. After being pitted against the Ottomans, the Arabs had successfully yielded to the motives of British occupants for the false promise of independence. But when their designs triumphantly disintegrated the Empire and made Arabs enemies of their brothers in Turkey, British forgot the promise that perhaps they had never intended to keep. Consequently, the most powerful Muslim Empire was rendered dysfunctional within and explicitly began to be rechristened into a National State. Salim III laid the groundwork for new westernizing reforms and established Ottoman embassies in European Capitals. In 1860's the economy slumped and finally the Islamic Empire became bankrupt. The political and economic position of the Empire was in stalemate in 1890's when it conspicuously began to present a vulnerable overture for foreign conquests. Palestine was one of the pivotal parts of Ottoman Empire. In 1897 Zionists held their first conference in Basel to discuss their ultimate aim to create the Israeli state in the Ottoman province of Palestine. Same year marked the death of Sayyid Jammal-ud-din Afghani, a Muslim reformer, who had strived for a consensus amongst the Islamic states to gather and collectively confront the Western colonialism and hegemony. Finally, the publication of the Sykes Picot agreement in 1920 in the wake of Ottoman defeat in First World War, the Empire's provinces were divided between British and French, who established mandates and protectorates to further split the Muslim community of world.

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Psalm of Heavens (Special Documentary on Day of Hazrat Fatima R.A)

Psalm of Heavens (Special Documentary on Day of Hazrat Fatima R.A)

Hazrat Fatima R.A
She was beloved daughter of Muhammad s.a.w.w. among the four daughters. Hazrat Fatimah r.a. was very near and dear to Him and even at the time of His death, prophet Muhammad s.a.w.w talked to Fatimah and told her that she will be the queen of the youth in paradise.
Hazrat Fatimah r.a. was married to hazrat ali r.a. who was cousin of Muhammad s.a.w.w and was younger than Him. From hazrat ali r.a, hazrat Fatimah had two sons, Hassan r.a. and hussain r.a. these two grandsons of Muhammad s.a.w.w were beloved and very dear to Him.
Muhammad s.a.w.w used to carry them on His shoulders. They used to jump onto his back when He s.a.w.w used to offer namaz and go for sadja. But Muhammad s.a.w.w never talked even a slightest harsh to them and always treated them with love.
 Hazrat Fatimah r.a. was a pious muslimah who spent her entire life practicing islam in its true spirit.
The linage of prophet Muhammad s.a.w.w has continued from the children of his daughters s.a.w.w. it is said that the promised mehdi will be from the pure linage of Muhammad s.a.w.w. this claim has always made the shia people happy because they think that they are the true followers and keepers of the linage of the family of Muhammad s.a.w.w. they are in delusion which will certainly be broken when imam mehdi will come.
Hazrat Fatima r.a was a significant personality of islam. She was pious and was mother of the pious kids who will be the leaders of youth (young boys) in jannat and she was the wife of the pious man who was forth rightly guided khalifah of islam. May ALLH be pleased with all of them.

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This Day in History 07 May (Mehrdad Avesta)

On this day in 1991, the contemporary Iranian poet, author, and researcher, Mehrdad Avesta, passed away at the age of 62 years. He was an authority on the classical Persian poet Shaikh Sadi’s famous works “Bostaan” and “Golestan”, in addition to Arabic grammar. He lectured on Iranian and global arts and literature at several colleges in Tehran. He started political activities during the repressive rule of the Pahlavi regime, through his poems. He has written beautiful poems on the Islamic Revolution and in admiration of the Founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Imam Khomeini (may his soul rest in peace). He researched and published the works of prominent classical Persian poets, such as Hafez, Sa’di, Mowlavi, Khaqani, Sanaei, and Salman Saavoji.

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Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 06 May (1744-1829)

Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck was born on August 1, 1744, in the village of Bazentin-le-Petit in the north of France. He was the youngest of eleven children in a family with a centuries-old tradition of military service; his father and several of his brothers were soldiers. The young Lamarck entered the Jesuit seminary at Amiens around 1756, but not long after his father's death, Lamarck rode off to join the French army campaigning in Germany in the summer of 1761; in his first battle, he distinguished himself for bravery under fire and was promoted to officer. After peace was declared in 1763, Lamarck spent five years on garrison duty in the south of France, until an accidental injury forced him to leave the army. After working as a bank clerk in Paris for a while, Lamarck began to study medicine and botany, at which he rapidly became expert; in 1778 his book on the plants of France, Flore Française, was published to great acclaim, in part thanks to the support of Buffon.
On the strength of the Flore Française (and Buffon's patronage), Lamarck was appointed an assistant botanist at the royal botanical garden, the Jardin des Plantes, which was not only a botanical garden but a center for medical education and biological research. Aside from a stint as tutor to Buffon's son during a tour of Europe in 1781, Lamarck continued as an underpaid assistant at the Jardin du Roi, living in poverty (and having to defend his job from cost-cutting bureaucrats in the National Assembly) until 1793. That year, the same year that Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette went to the guillotine, the old Jardin des Plantes was reorganized as the Musée National d'Histoire Naturelle (National Museum of Natural History), which was to be run by twelve professors in twelve different scientific fields. Lamarck, who had called for this reorganization, was appointed a professor -- of the natural history of insects and worms (that is, of all invertebrates), a subject he knew nothing about.
To be fair to Lamarck, we should mention that since the time of Linnaeus, few naturalists had considered the invertebrates worthy of study. The word "invertebrates" did not even exist at the time; Lamarck coined it. The invertebrate collections at the Musée were enormous and rapidly growing, but poorly organized and classified. Although the professors at the Musée were theoretically equal in rank, the professorship of "insects and worms" was definitely the least prestigious. But Lamarck took on the enormous challenge of learning -- and creating -- a new field of biology. The sheer number and diversity of invertebrates proved to be both a challenge and a rich source of knowledge. As Lamarck lectured his students in 1803, after ten years of research on invertebrates:
. . . we perceive that, relative to the animal kingdom, we should chiefly devote our attention to the invertebrate animals, because their enormous multiplicity in nature, the singular diversity of their systems of organization, and of their means of multiplication, . . . , show us, much better than the higher animals, the true course of nature, and the means which she has used and which she still unceasingly employs to give existence to all the living bodies of which we have knowledge.
Lamarck published a series of books on invertebrate zoology and paleontology. Of these, Philosophie zoologique, published in 1809, most clearly states Lamarck's theories of evolution. The first volume of Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans vertèbres was published in 1815, the second in 1822. Aside from Lamarck's contributions to evolutionary theory, his works on invertebrates represent a great advance over existing classifications; he was the first to separate the Crustacea, Arachnida, and Annelida from the "Insecta." His classification of the mollusks was far in advance of anything proposed previously; Lamarck broke with tradition in removing the tunicates and the barnacles from the Mollusca. He also anticipated the work of Schleiden & Schwann in cell theory in stating that:
. . . no body can have life if its constituent parts are not cellular tissue or are not formed by cellular tissue.

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History of Heavens (Ayatollah Sayyid Hasan Mudarris)

His seminal teaching often focused on the importance of religion to practical social and political issues of the day, and he worked against secularism in the 1940s. His first book, Kashf al-Asrar (Uncovering of Secrets)[43][44] published in 1942, was a point-by-point refutation of Asrar-e hazar salih (Secrets of a Thousand Years), a tract written by a disciple of Iran's leading anti-clerical historian, Ahmad Kasravi.[45] In addition, he went from Qom to Tehran to listen to Ayatullah Hasan Mudarris, the leader of the opposition majority in Iran's parliament during the 1920s. Khomeini became a marja in 1963, following the death of Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Husayn Borujerdi.
On November 29, 1911, the Russian empire, which exerted great influence in Iran, sent troops into Iranian territory and delivered an ultimatum to the Iranian government which was supported by Britain. The ultimatum called for the dismissal of the American advisory group led by Morgan Shuster; a guarantee that no foreign adviser would be hired in future without the consent of Russia and Britain; and payment of an indemnity to the Russian troops in Iran. The ultimatum was discussed in a meeting of the Second National Assembly on December 1, 1911 and was met with strong opposition from Ayatullah Mudarris and other members of Parliament

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Hafiz Shirazi 3 End (Poet of Love)

Important Events

Teens
He had memorized the Koran by listening to his father's recitations of it. He also had memorized many of the works of his hero, Saadi, as wells as Attar, Rumi and Nizami.
His father who was a coal merchant died, leaving him and his mother with much debt. Hafiz and his mother went to live with his uncle (also called Saadi). He left day school to work in a drapery shop and later in a bakery.
Age 21
(1341 ad)
While still working at the bakery, Hafiz delivered bread to a wealthy quarter of town and saw Shakh-e Nabat, a young woman of incredible beauty. Many of his poems are addressed to Shakh-e Nabat.
Age 21
In pursuit of reaching his beloved, Hafiz kept a forty day and night vigil at the tomb of Baba Kuhi. After successfully attaining this, he met Attar and became his disciple.
Early twenties to early thirties
Became a poet of the court of Abu Ishak. Gained much fame and influence in Shiraz. This was the phase of "Spiritual Romanticism" in his poetry.
Age 33
Mubariz Muzaffar captured Shiraz, and among his various deeds, he ousted Hafiz from his position of teacher of Koranic studies at the college. At this time he wrote protest poems.
Age 38
Shah Shuja took his tyrant father as prisoner, and re-instated Hafiz as a teacher at the college. He began his phase of subtle spirituality in his poetry.
Early forties
Falling out of favor with Shah Shuja.
Age 48
Hafiz fled Shiraz for his safety, and went into self-imposed exile in Isfahan. His poems mainly talk of his longing for Shiraz, for Shakh-e Nabat, and for his spiritual Master, Attar (not the famous Farid-uddin Attar of Neishabour - who predates Hafiz by a couple of centuries - but the lesser known Attar of Shiraz).
Age 52
By invitation of Shah Shuja, he ended his exile and returned to Shiraz. He was re-instated to his post at the College.
Age 60
Longing to be united with his Creator, he began a forty day and night vigil by sitting in a circle that he had drawn himself.
Age 60
On the morn of the fortieth day of his vigil, which was also on the fortieth anniversary of meeting his Master Attar, he went to his Master, and upon drinking a cup of wine that Attar gave him, he attained Cosmic Consciousness or God-Realization.
Sixties
In this phase, up to the age of 69 when he died, he composed more than half of his ghazals., and continued to teach his small circle of disciples. His poetry at this time, talk with the authority of a Master who is united with God.
Poetry
Divan-e-Hafiz
Some 500 ghazals, 42 Rubaiyees, and a few Ghaseedeh's, composed over a period of 50 years. Hafiz only composed when he was divinely inspired, and therefore he averaged only about 10 Ghazals per year. His focus was to write poetry worthy of the Beloved.
Compiler of Divan
Hafiz did not compile his poetry. Mohammad Golandaam, who also wrote a preface to his compilation, completed it in 813 A.H or 1410 a.d, some 21-22 years after Hafiz's death.
Also another person who compiled Hafiz's poetry was one of his young disciples Sayyid Kasim-e Anvar, who collected 569 Ghazals attributed to Hafiz. He died in 1431 a.d. some 42-43 years after Hafiz's death.
Death Date:
Late 1388 or early 1389 a.d. or 791 A.H. at the age of 69.
Place:
Shiraz
Tomb:
in Musalla Gardens, along the banks of Ruknabad river in Shiraz, which is referred to as Hafezieh.
Hafiz could be buried in sacred ground. But his works had become so famous that they were used for divination. When consulted appropriately by the authorities, the poetry of Hafiz provided the following advice:

Turn not away from the bier of Hafiz,

Steeped in sin, he will enter Paradise.

Hafiz was buried in the center of a cemetery in Shiraz.

There is a story that the invader Timur angrily summoned him and demanded if he was the poet who would exchange two of Timur’s great cities, Samarkand and Bokhara, for the mole on his mistress’s cheek. “Yes, sir”, replied Hafiz, “and it is through such acts of generosity that I have reached a state of destitution that forces me to solicit your bounty.” Timur was amused enough to send the poet away with a gift. The truth of this story is questioned by those who claim Timur arrived at Shiraz after Hafiz had gained his tomb.

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Hafiz Shirazi 2 (Poet of Love)

Birth

Date: Sometime between the years 1310-1325 a.d. or 712-727 A.H. The most probable date is either 1320, or 1325 a.d.

Place: Shiraz, in South-central Iran

Name Shamseddin Mohammad

Family Pen-Name Hafiz or Hafez (a title given to those who had memorized the Koran by heart. It is claimed that Hafiz had done this in fourteen different ways).

Full Title Khajeh Shamseddin Mohammad Hafiz-s ShiraziOther variations of spelling are: Khwajeh Shams al-Din Muhammad Hafez-e Shirazi, or Khwaje Shams ud-Din Mohammed Hafiz-e Shirazi

Father: Baha-ud-Din

Brothers: He had two older brothers

Wife: Hafiz married in his twenties, even though he continued his love for Shakh-e Nabat, as the manifest symbol of her Creator's beauty.

Children: Hafiz had one child.

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Literary Ambassadors of Iran at the United Nations Office at Vienna

Statues of four Iranian luminaries were unveiled during a ceremony at the United Nations Office at Vienna

Iran’s ambassador to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Ali-Asghar Soltanieh, and several other Iranian and foreign diplomats attended the unveiling ceremony for the statues of Avicenna, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Zakariya Razi (Rhazes), and Omar Khayyam.
“The idea was proposed by Iran’s representative at the UN Office at Vienna and was realized with the cooperation of Iran’s Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts Organization (CHTHO). The process of making the statues began two years ago,” Soltanieh told the Persian service of IRNA.
“The statues were completed last week and were transferred to the open space of the UN office. The date for the unveiling was also discussed with (members of) several organizations, including the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and finally the day June 9 was selected.”
The four statues are the symbols of Iranians’ adventurous spirit over the centuries and they are gifts from the Iranian nation to the world, Soltanieh added.
Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina, known as Abu Ali Sina and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna was born c. 980 near Bukhara, in contemporary Uzbekistan, and died in 1037 in Hamedan, Iran. He was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time. He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, physicist, poet, psychologist, scientist, soldier, statesman, and teacher.
The Muslim physician and writer Abu Bakr Muhammed ibn Zakariya Razi (854?-925?), also known as Rhazes, whose medical writings greatly influenced the Islamic world and Western Europe in the Middle Ages, was born and died in Rey. He wrote on almost every aspect of medicine.
Omar Khayyam (1048-1123) is chiefly known to English-speaking readers through the translation of a collection of his quatrains in “The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam” (1859), by the English writer Edward Fitzgerald.
Abu Rayhan Biruni (973-ca. 1048) was a Muslim astronomer, mathematician, geographer, and historian.

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History of Islamic Medicine 26

1. Arkan (Elements)
"Arkan " are simple bodies, which account for original constituents of human and non-human beings. They include fire , air , water and soil .
2- Mizaj (Physical Temperament)
Physical temperament is a product of combination of elements. Under a classification, physical temperaments fall into two categories.
A. Moderate
B. Immoderate
A. Moderate temperament in turn falls into two categories.
q Real moderate is a temperament in which the amount of qualities or quantities, which run counter to each other, is equal.
q Hypothetical moderate includes all those temperaments, which are not real.
Real moderate is a non-existent. What philosophers call Moderate is in fact hypothetical Moderate.
B. Immoderate temperaments fall into two categories as well:
q Simple temperaments
In such temperaments the quantity of two elements is equal but the third element outweighs the fourth. That definition adds up to 4 different simple temperaments. For instance if warmness and coldness are equal in quantity, but dryness is bigger than wetness , that temperament is called "dry ".
q Complex Temperament
Neither pair is equal in this temperament. Two elements are always over whelmed by the other two. Overall, under this category we have four temperaments: "warm and dry ", "warm and wet ”, "cold and dry" and "cold and wet".
3- Akhlat (Structural Components)
Structural components are the components into which food is first turned. There are four of them.
A. Bile , which is warm and dry .
B. Blood , which is warm and wet .
C. Phlegm which is cold and wet .
D. Black bile , which is cold and dry .
Below is a chart showing the features of structural components in comparison with elements.

Element	Structural Component	Feature
Fire	Bile	Warm and Dry
Air	Blood	Warm and Wet
Water	Phlegm	Cold  and Wet
Soil	Black bile	Cold  and Dry

 

Each one of the structural components in turn falls into two categories: natural and unnatural.
To have life, water and air are the most important elements respectively. The main components of human body are bile and blood . Human life depends on blood circulation. When circulation stops, life comes to an end. Structural components interact. When there is a balance in relationship among structural components, life becomes sustainable.
Structural components are said to be made up of food. That means food, just like humans, has physical temperaments. Some foods are warm and dry so they make up bile . In fact they have anti-phlegmatic effects. Some others are warm and wet . They make blood and have anti-black bile effects. Another group is cold and wet. That is it helps create phlegm and has anti-bile effect. The last group is cold and dry helps the body make black bile . They have anti-blood effects. Natural drugs such as herbal medicines have physical temperaments, too. These temperaments are used as a basis for prescription of a certain herbal medicine for an illness.
4- Adha (Fully - Grown Organs)
Fully-grown organs are made up of akhlat (structural components). Each one of them has its special features. For instance heart is the warmest organ, while bones are the coldest. Organs fall into two different categories: "Raeesah" and "Qeir Raeesah". The latter in turn falls into two categories "Khadem-ul-Raeesah" and "Qeir Khadem-ul-Raeesah". "Qeir Khadem-ul-Raeesah" organs are either "Maroosah" or "Qeir Maroosah". "Raeesah" organs are instrumental in sustainability of life. Among them are heart, brain, liver and testicles.
Examples of "Khadem-ul-Raeesah" organs are nerves, arteries, and urea, which help brain, heart and liver carry out their functions. Maroosah organs are those which receive the power from Raeesah organs. Among them are kidneys, stomach, spleen, and lungs. Qeir Maroosah organs are those which receive no power from Raeesah organs. Among them are bones and joints.
5- Arwah (Vital forces of life)
Arwah is the plural form of "Ruh ". They are made up of steams of structural components and fall into three different categories.
A. Natural Ruh (Tabiee) , which is pumped into veins from liver. It visits all parts of the body and facilitates nutrition and growth.
B. Animal Ruh (Heywani), which is pumped into arteries from heart and circulate.
C. Spirit Ruh (Nafsani) , which is sent by brain to different parts of the body through nerves. It is the origin of sense and motion.
6- Quwa (Bodily power)
Quwa is the plural form of "Quwat" which is the power granted to human or animal body to do what they want to. Quwa fall into two different categories.
A. The Quwa (powers) which are essential in life.
B. The Quwa (powers) which are essential in reproduction.
The first group in turn falls into three categories.
q Natural powers which are based in liver and are instrumental in nutrition and growth.
q Animal power, which are based in heart and play a role in living functions. While the heart pumping blood , air is taken in and smoke-like steam is forced out of heart and lungs.
q Spiritual powers which are based in brain and control senses and motions. Spiritual powers fall into different categories in turn:
a) Perceptive powers
Perceptive powers in turn fall into external and internal categories. External powers include vision, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching. Internal powers include common sense, imagination, thinking, illusion and memory.
-Common sense is a power, which senses all tangible things.
-Imagination is a power, which retains the effects of what has crossed the line from tangible to common sense.
-Thinking is a power, which makes changes in tangible things like thinking of a headless or two-headed man. The difference between dreaming and thinking is that the first one keeps what it receives from the common sense but the latter makes changes to what dream keeps in it.
-Vahm (Conceit)
-Hafezeh (preserving power)
b) Motive power
Motive power falls into two categories:
-"Ba_etheh" (incentive power), which encourages the person to make a motion which is useful or seems so; or it makes the person stop a motion, which is harmful or seems so.
-"Fa_eleh" (active power) is the power, which makes muscles do what "Ba_etheh" instruct them to.
7. Afaal (functions)
Afaal is the plural form of "Fel" which means task and activity. All the previous six entries are there to carry out certain tasks. Some tasks are accomplished by one single power like digestion and excretion. Some tasks require cooperation of a few powers. Among them are "turning food to structural components" and "turning structural components to "Ruh ", etc.
What was already mentioned reveals that the ITM has its roots in medicine of ancient Iran, folk medicine and the medicine practiced in other countries. It should be mentioned however that Islamic teachings have played a significant role in shaping up the ITM.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 14 End

On January 3, 1979, Shapour Bakhtiar of the National Front (Jabhe-yi Melli) was appointed prime minister to replace General Azhari. And on January 16, Shah left Iran.
The Ayatollah Khomeini embarked on a chartered airliner of Air France on the evening of January 31 and arrived in Tehran the following morning. He was welcomed by a very popular joy. On February 5, he introduced Mehdi Bazargan as interim prime minister (yet Bakhtiyar was appointed prime minister of Shah).
Ayatollah Khomeini's
last years
On February 10, Ayatollah Khomeini ordered that the curfew should be defied. The next day the Supreme Military Council withdrew its support from Bakhtiyar, and on February 12, 1979, following the sporadic street gunfight all organs of the regime, political, administrative, and military, finally collapsed. The revolution had triumphed.On March 30 and 31, a nationwide referendum resulted in a massive vote in favor of the establishment of an Islamic Republic. Ayatollah Khomeini proclaimed the next day, April 1, 1979, as the "first day of God's government". He obtained the title of "Imam" (highest religious rank in Shia). With the establishment of Islamic Republic of Iran he became Supreme Leader (Vali-e Faqeeh). He settled in Qom but on January 23, 1980, Ayatollah Khomeini was brought from Qom to Tehran to receive heart treatment. After thirty-nine days in hospital, he took up residence in the north Tehran suburb of Darband , and on April 22 he moved into a modest house in Jamaran, another suburb to the north of the capital. A closely guarded compound grew up around the house, and it was there that he spent the rest of his life as absolute ruler of Iran.Ayatollah Khomeini, on June 3, 1989, after eleven days in hospital for an operation to stop internal bleeding, lapsed into a critical condition and died.Ayatollah Khomeini in his 10 years of leadership established a theocratic rule over Iran. He did not fulfil his pre-revolution promises to the people of Iran but instead he started to marginalize and crash the opposition groups and those who opposed the clerical rules. He ordered establishment of many institutions to consolidate power and safeguard the cleric leadership. During his early years in power he launched the Cultural Revolution in order to Islamize the whole country. Many people were laid off, and lots of books were revised or burnt according to the new Islamic values. Newly established Islamic Judiciary system sentenced many Iranians to death and long-term imprisonment as they were in opposition to those radical changes.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 11

The Shah's regime continued its pro-American policies and in the autumn of 1964, it concluded an agreement with the United States that provided immunity from prosecution for all American personnel in Iran and their dependents. This occasioned the Khomeini to deliver a speech against the Shah. He denounced the agreement as surrender of Iranian independence and sovereignty, made in exchange for a $200 million loan that would be of benefit only to the Shah and his associates, and described as traitors all those in the Majlis who voted in favor of it; the government lacked all legitimacy, he concluded.

Shortly before dawn on November 4, 1964, again commandos surrounded the Ayatollah Khomeini house in Qom, arrested him, and this time took him directly to Mehrabad airport in Tehran for immediate exile to Turkey on the hope that in exile he would fade from popular memory. As Turkish law forbade Ayatollah Khomeini to wear the cloak and turban of the Muslim scholar, an identity which was integral to his being. However, On September 5, 1965, Ayatollah Khomeini left Turkey for Najaf in Iraq, where he was destined to spend thirteen years. 

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 10

On the afternoon of 'Ashoura (June 3, 1963), Imam Khomeini delivered a speech at the Feyziyeh madreseh in which he drew parallels between the Umayyad caliph Yazid and the Shah and warned the Shah that if he did not change his ways the day would come when the people would offer up thanks for his departure from the country. The immediate effect of the Imam's speech was, however, his arrest two days later at 3 o'clock in the morning by a group of commandos who hastily transferred him to the Qasr prison in Tehran. As dawn broke on June 3, the news of his arrest spread first through Qom and then to other cities. In Qom, Tehran, Shiraz, Mashhad and Varamin, masses of angry demonstrators were confronted by tanks and paratroopers. It was not until six days later that order was fully restored. This uprising of 15 Khordad 1342 marked a turning point in Iranian history.
Ayatollah Khomeini going to exile
After nineteen days in the Qasr prison, Ayatollah Khomeini was moved first to the 'Eshratabad' military base and then to a house in the 'Davoudiyeh' section of Tehran where he was kept under surveillance.
He was released on April 7, 1964, and returned to Qom.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 9

In January 1963, the Shah announced a six-point program of reform called the White Revolution, an American-inspired package of measures designed to give his regime a liberal and progressive facade. Ayatollah Khomeini summoned a meeting of his colleagues in Qom to press upon them the necessity of opposing the Shah's plans. They sent Ayatollah Kamalvand, to see the Shah and gauge his intentions. Although the Shah showed no inclination to retreat or compromise, it took further pressure by Ayatollah Khomeini on the other senior 'ulama' of Qom to persuade them to decree a boycott of the referendum that the Shah had planned to obtain the appearance of popular approval for his White Revolution. Ayatollah Khomeini issued on January 22, 1963 a strongly worded declaration denouncing the Shah and his plans. Two days later Shah took armored column to Qom, and he delivered a speech harshly attacking the 'ulama' as a class.
Ayatollah Khomeini continued his denunciation of the Shah's programs, issuing a manifesto that also bore the signatures of eight other senior scholars. In it he listed the various ways in which the Shah had violated the constitution, condemned the spread of moral corruption in the country, and accused the Shah of comprehensive submission to America and Israel. He also decreed that the Norooz celebrations for the Iranian year 1342 (which fell on March 21, 1963) be cancelled as a sign of protest against government policies.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 8

The emphases of the Ayatollah Khomeini's activity began to change with the death of Ayatollah Boroujerdi on March 31, 1961, for he now emerged as one of the successors to Boroujerdi's position of leadership. This emergence was signaled by the publication of some of his writings on fiqh, most importantly the basic handbook of religious practice entitled, like others of its genre, Tozih al-Masael. He was soon accepted as Marja-e Taqlid by a large number of Iranian Shi'is.
In the autumn of 1962, the government promulgated new laws governing elections to local and provincial councils, which deleted the former requirement that those elected be sworn into office on the Qoran. Seeing in this a plan to permit the infiltration of public life by the Baha'is, Imam Khomeini telegraphed both the Mohammad Reza Shah and the prime minister of the day, warning them to desist from violating both the law of Islam and the Iranian Constitution of 1907, failing which the 'ulama' (religious scholars) would engage in a sustained campaign of protest.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 6

Seyed Ahmad, by the time of death, the date of which is unknown, had two children: a daughter by the name of Sahiba, and Seyed Moustafa Hindi, born in 1885, the father of Khomeini. Seyed Moustafa began his religious education in Esfahan and continued his advanced studies in Najaf and Samarra (this corresponded to a pattern of preliminary study in Iran followed by advanced study in the "Atabat", the shrine cities of Iraq; Ayatollah Khomeini was in fact the first religious leader of prominence whose formation took place entirely in Iran). After accomplishing his advanced studies he returned to Khomein, and then married with Hajar (mother of Rouhollah Khomeini).
In March 1903, Khomeini when was just 5 months old lost his father. And in 1918, Khomeini lost both his aunt, Sahiba, who had played a great role in his early upbringing, and his mother, Hajar. Responsibility for the family then devolved on his eldest brother, Seyed Mourteza (later to be known as Ayatollah Pasandideh).
Khomeini began his education by memorizing the Qoran at a maktab (traditional religious school). In 1920-21, Seyed Mourteza sent the Rouhollah Khomeini to the city of Arak (or Sultanabad, as it was then known) in order for him to benefit from the more ample educational resources available there.
Young Rouhollah Khomeini
In 1923, Khomeini arrived in Qom and devoted himself to completing the preliminary stage of madreseh (school or academy) education.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 7

Khomeini did not engage in any political activities during the 1930's. He believed that the leadership of political activities should be in the hands of the foremost religious scholars, and he was therefore obliged to accept the decision of Ayatollah Haeri to remain relatively passive toward the measures taken by Reza Shah against the traditions and culture of Islam in Iran. In any event, as a still junior figure in the religious institution in Qom, he would have been in no position to mobilize popular opinion on a national scale.
In 1955, a nationwide campaign against the Baha'i sect was launched, for which the Khomeini sought to recruit Ayatollah Boroujerdi's (he was the most prominent religious leader in Qom after the death of Ayatollah Haeri) support, but he had little success.
Ayatollah Khomeini therefore concentrated during the years of Ayatollah Boroujerdi's leadership in Qom on giving instruction in fiqh (Islamic science) and gathering round him students who later became his associates in the movement that led to the overthrow of the Pahlavi Dynasty, not only Ayatollah Mutahhari and Ayatollah Muntaziri, but younger men such as Hojatolislam Muhammad Javad Bahonar and Hojatolislam Ali Akbar Hashimi-Rafsanjani.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 5

Rouhollah Mousavi Khomeini was born on 24 September 1902 (20 Jamadi al-Akhir 1320), the anniversary of the birth of Hazrat Fatima, in the small town of Khomein, some 160 kilometres to the southwest of Qom. He was the child of a family with a long tradition of religious scholarship. His ancestors, descendants of Imam Mousa al-Kazim, the seventh Imam of the Ahl al-Bayt, had migrated towards the end of the eighteenth century from their original home in Neishapour (in Khorasan province of Iran) to the Lucknow region of northern India. There they settled and began devoting themselves to the religious instruction and guidance of the region's predominantly Shi'i population.
Khomeini's grandfather, Seyed Ahmad, left Lucknow (according to a statement of Khomeini's elder brother, Seyed Morteza Pasandideh, his point of departure was Kashmir, not Lucknow) some time in the middle of the nineteenth century on pilgrimage to the tomb of Hazrat 'Ali in Najaf. While in Najaf, Seyed Ahmad met Yousef Khan, a prominent citizen of Khomein. Accepting his invitation, he decided to settle in Khomein to assume responsibility for the religious needs of its citizens and also took Yousef Khan's daughter in marriage.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 4

After the revolution
In November of 1986 President Ronald Reagan (1911–) admitted that the United States had secretly supplied some arms to Iran for their war against Iraq. This controversy led to a lengthy governmental investigation to see if federal laws had been violated in what would become known as the Iran-Contra affair.
In 1988 Khomeini and Iran accepted a cease-fire with Iraq after being pressured by the United Nations, a multi-national, peace-keeping organization. On February 14, 1989, Khomeini sentenced writer Salman Rushdie (1947–) to death, without a trial, in a legal ruling called a fatwa. Khomeini deemed Rushdie's novel "The Satanic Verses" to be blasphemous, or insulting to God, because of its unflattering portrait of Islam.
Before his death from cancer in Iran on June 3, 1989, Khomeini designated President Ali Khamenei to succeed him. Khomeini is still a popular figure to Iranians. Each year on the anniversary of his death, hundreds of thousands of people attend a ceremony at his shrine at the Behesht-e-Zahra cemetery.
For More Information
Bakhash, Shaul. The Region of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution. New York: Basic Books, 1984.
Hiro, Dilip. Iran Under the Ayatollahs. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1985.
Moin, Baqer. Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2000.
Rajaee, Farhang. Islamic Values and World View: Khomeyni on Man, the State and International Politics. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983.

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Movement of Imam Khomeini (r.a.) 3

Founding the Islamic Republic of Iran
The third phase of Khomeini's life began with his return to Iran from exile on February 1, 1979, after Muhammad Reza Shah had been forced to step down two weeks earlier. On February 11 revolutionary forces loyal to Khomeini seized power in Iran, and Khomeini emerged as the founder and the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
From the perspective of Khomeini and his followers, the Iranian Revolution went through several "revolutionary" phases. The first phase began with Khomeini's appointment of Mehdi Bazargan as the head of the "provisional government" on February 5, 1979, and ended with his fall on November 6, two days after the capture of the U.S. embassy (the U.S. headquarters in Iran).
The second revolution was marked by the elimination of mainly nationalist forces, or forces devoted to the interests of a culture. As early as August 20, 1979, twenty-two newspapers that clashed with Khomeini's views were ordered closed. In terms of foreign policy, the landmarks of the second revolution were the destruction of U.S.-Iran relations and the admission of the shah to the United States on October 22, 1979. Two weeks later, Khomeini instructed Iranian students to "expand with all their might their attacks against the United States" in order to force the extradition (legal surrender) of the shah. The seizure of the American embassy on November 4 led to 444 days of agonizing dispute between the United States and Iran until the release of the hostages on January 21, 1981.
The so-called third revolution began with Khomeini's dismissal of President Abul Hassan Bani-Sadr on June 22, 1981. Bani-Sadr's fate was a result of Khomeini's determination to eliminate from power any individual or group that could stand in the way of the ideal Islamic Republic of Iran. This government, however, had yet to be molded thoroughly according to his interpretation of Islam. In terms of foreign policy, the main characteristics of the third revolution were the continuation of the Iraq-Iran war, expanded efforts to export the "Islamic revolution," and increasing relations with the Soviet Union, a once-powerful nation that was made up of Russia and several other smaller nations.
The revolution began going through yet a fourth phase in late 1982. Domestically, the clerical class had combined its control, prevented land distribution, and promoted the role of the private citizens. Internationally, Iran sought a means of ending its status as an outcast and tried to distance itself from terrorist groups. It expanded commercial relations with Western Europe, China, Japan, and Turkey and reduced interaction with the Soviet Union. Iran also claimed that the door was open for re-establishing relations with the United States.

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